Guy Hall

Adapting Violence Rehabilitation Programs for the Australian Aboriginal Offender

Abstract In this paper the authors address the question of how treatment and rehabilitation programs for violent offenders might be modified to more appropriately meet the needs of different cultural groups and improve treatment responsiv-ity. The focus of the paper is on the needs of Aboriginal violent offenders in an Australian context, although the themes have relevance to treatment programs internationally. Two broad sources of information are used: the published literature relating to violent offending in Aboriginal people in Australia, and a small-scale interview-based qualitative survey of service providers with particular experience in this area. The evidence suggests there may be some distinctive features to Aboriginal violent offending. Suggestions are made on how programs can be more responsive to Aboriginal offender needs, thereby improving treatment and rehabilitation outcomes.

Rationalizing Criminal Behaviour: The Influence of Criminal Sentiments on Sociomoral Development in Violent Offenders and Nonoffenders

Cognitive developmental theory suggests that mature-level sociomoral reasoning (Stages 3 and 4) can provide a protective factor, or buffer, against antisocial and violent criminal behavior. This study explored whether the influence of internalised criminal sentiments could undermine this buffer. The sample was high-risk men and women offenders (n =99) convicted of serious violent index offences, and men and women nonoffender university students (n = 101). Moral reasoning was measured using the Sociomoral Reflection Measure-Short Form, whereas criminal sentiments were assessed using the Criminal Sentiments Scale. Based on moral reasoning development level the sample was classified into groups: mature- or immature-level moral reasoners. The results suggested that mature-level sociomoral development might not protect a person from identifying with criminal others, and that law violation could be rationalized regardless of sociomoral level. Gender differences were neither expected nor found. The applied implications of the findings are considered.

Self-Inflicted Injury and Coping Behaviours in Prison

Previous research (Bonner & Rich, 1990; Liebling, 1992; Liebling & Krarup, 1993) has suggested that self-harming prisoners are “poor copers,” but has not provided detail as to how they differ from other prisoners in terms of their actual coping behaviour. Liebling (1992) found that self-harmers were more likely to have serious difficulties with other prisoners, less likely to have outside supports (either family or probation), spent more time in their cell (partly through being on restrictive regime and partly because they were hiding from teasing and intimidation), and were less able to articulate constructive ways of filling their time. Liebling concluded that “inmates with the fewest opportunities to occupy themselves (for whatever reason, some self-induced) were those who were least able to cope with the isolation and boredom of confinement to a cell for long periods of time” (p. 144). Essentially, however, poor coping ability was inferred from the greater levels of distress and disorder reported and there was no direct assessment of coping behaviour. It is yet to be determined whether prisoners who self-harm differ from other prisoners in terms of their coping behaviour. A more specific test of Liebling’s assertion would be to examine whether prisoners who self-harm are less likely to employ effective coping strategies or are more likely to employ ineffective or counter-productive strategies. It is not clear, however, what constitutes an effective coping strategy. Aldwin and Revenson (1987) remarked that “we are far from describing a “magic bullet” coping strategy that can instantly solve problems and restore emotional equilibrium” (p. 338). Nearly a decade later, Steed (1995) undertook an extensive review of the coping literature and concluded that “there are no strategies which can generally be regarded as more effective than others, rather, it depends on the nature of the stressor, particularly its controllability” (p. 100). On a more general level, however, studies have consistently found that problem-

You Have to Hit Some People! Measurement and Criminogenic Nature of Violent Sentiments in Australia

Criminal sentiments are the highest risk factor for recidivism. Although criminal sentiments have been reliably measured, there are few scales measuring violent sentiments. The aim of this study was to report on three studies exploring the theory and psychometrics of a new Justification for Violence Scale (JFV). The JFV items have high ecological validity in that they were drawn from in-depth interviews with violent men. Psychometric analysis showed that the JFV was unifactorial with high criterion-related validity differentiating three distinct groups (sample N = 530): male offenders, men and women from the community, and university undergraduates. In a further study of 250 community adults, high correlations with self-reported physical aggression and violent fantasies, and negative correlations with social desirability supported the JFVs convergent and discriminant validity. The JFV can be used by researchers or clinicians as a single measure or the items can be inserted into the Criminal Sentiments Scale to enhance the measurement of violent and criminal attitudes and beliefs.

The management of suicide and self-harm in prisons: Recommendations for good practice

Suicide and self-harm in prisons are serious problems in Australasia and in many other jurisdictions. Psychologists frequently have a role in advising on, and assisting in, the prevention of such behaviours. Few guidelines and formal statements of good professional practice exist for such work. In this paper we review the published literature and current prevention practices with a view to devising recommendations for good practice in management and prevention.

Non-fatal self-harm in Western Australian prisons: who, where, when and why

One hundred and eight non-fatal self-harm incidents that occurred in the Western Australian prison system over a nine-month period were examined. Descriptive data pertaining to these incidents and the 91 prisoners who enacted them are presented. Self-report data pertaining to motives for self-harming, precipitating factors and level of suicidal intent are also presented. The data are consistent with previous international research. Most incidents involved lacerations of low lethality (although 15% were attempted hangings) and occurred in the prisoners cell when alone and within a secure prison. Self-report data indicated that prison stressors precipitated most incidents with the motive being to obtain relief from psychological distress. A high level of suicidal intent was reported for one in three incidents. Categories of prisoner at greater risk of self-harm included females, remandees, 18 to 25 year olds, those in special placements (disciplinary, medical, protection) and those in custody for less than one month.

You Have to Hit Some People! Endorsing Violent Sentiments and the Experience of Grievance Escalation in Australia

Criminal justice statistics show that Australia is the fourth highest nation for non-sexual violent assault and that most assaults are not random events. We investigated how grievances escalate into violence in a series of in-depth interviews with male maximum security prisoners who had a record of violent offences. Our analyses focused on the experience of grievance escalation and the justifications offered for the use of violence. We found that grievances were often triggered by psychological harm (broken promises, insults, inconsiderate behaviour) and that, although most of the men thought about the grievances only in terms of themselves and one other person, significant others, such as girlfriends or friends, on occasions provided weapons or encouraged violence. The involvement of significant others in escalating grievances suggests that violence prevention programs should include training in impression management and in skills to counter the insistence of girlfriends, family, and others for an aggressive response.

‘Forgiveness is a present to yourself as well’ An intrapersonal model of forgiveness in victims of violent crime

Existing models of forgiveness do not easily accommodate victims of crime. Therefore, this article presents an examination of the meaning of forgiveness from the perspective of crime victims. A grounded theory approach was adopted to analyse the data from a series of semi-structured interviews carried out with victims of serious violent offences. Results indicated that victims generally thought forgiveness was both positive and beneficial. Whereas major models of forgiveness emphasize the interpersonal nature of forgiveness, victims of crime conceived of the construct as strongly intrapersonal. Forgiveness was comprised of four parts: self-awareness, letting go, perspective-taking and moving on. Each of these aspects was examined in light of the data and contrasted with existing literature. This study establishes a new area of forgiveness research and provides further insight into the psychological experience of victims of crime.

Dionysius's brutal sense of entitlement: Plato's contribution to criminogenic needs

Abstract Criminogenic needs are now well established in the fields of psychology and criminology as factors that identify risk of criminal behaviour and recidivism. We propose that an inflated sense of entitlement may also be identified as a criminogenic need. An examination of the literature revealed an extensive variety of descriptions pertaining to an inflated sense of entitlement from character excesses to character deficits. However, whilst the wide variety of notions may be correct, there has been no mention, nor acknowledgement, of the origin of the concept of a sense of entitlement. In this article we will illustrate how an inflated sense of entitlement underpins criminal behaviour in general and violent behaviour in particular by using the framework proposed by Plato. An inflated sense of entitlement is then is discussed in response to each of the criteria required to be classified as a criminogenic need. This notion is purely theoretical and will benefit from qualitative exploration and quantitative investigation.

“If You Show a Bit of Violence They Learn Real Quick”: Measuring Entitlement in Violent Offenders

The theoretical notion of an inflated sense of entitlement has recently been proposed as a criminogenic need. Criminogenic needs are those factors which are directly related to criminal behaviour and recidivism. The three determinants that are required for a characteristic to qualify as a criminogenic need are that it can distinguish criminal behaviour, is able to be measured, and has the ability to generate pro-social change. The Sense of Entitlement Questionnaire (SOEQ) was designed in the absence of an appropriate instrument to measure this construct within the offending population. The SOEQ was administered to non-offenders, non-violent offenders and violent offenders. The results indicated that violent offenders have a more inflated sense of entitlement than non-offenders and non-violent offenders that, when violated, is more likely to result in violent behaviour. Future studies may now focus on whether an inflated sense of entitlement has the capacity to be changed.