Gwendolen Jull

Multifidus muscle recovery is not automatic after resolution of acute, first-episode low back pain.

Study Design A clinical study was conducted on 39 patients with acute, first‐episode, unilateral low back pain and unilateral, segmental inhibition of the multifidus muscle. Patients were allocated randomly to a control or treatment group. Objectives To document the natural course of lumbar multifidus recovery and to evaluate the effectiveness of specific, localized, exercise therapy on muscle recovery. Summary of Background Data Acute low back pain usually resolves spontaneously, but the recurrence rate is high. Inhibition of multifidus occurs with acute, first‐episode, low back pain, and pathologic changes in this muscle have been linked with poor outcome and recurrence of symptoms. Methods Patients in group 1 received medical treatment only. Patients in group 2 received medical treatment and specific, localized, exercise therapy. Outcome measures for both groups included 4 weekly assessments of pain, disability, range of motion, and size of the multifidus cross‐sectional area. Independent examiners were blinded to group allocation. Patients were reassessed at a 10‐week follow‐up examination. Results Multifidus muscle recovery was not spontaneous on remission of painful symptoms in patients in group 1. Muscle recovery was more rapid and more complete in patients in group 2 who received exercise therapy (P = 0.0001). Other outcome measurements were similar for the two groups at the 4‐week examination. Although they resumed normal levels of activity, patients in group 1 still had decreased multifidus muscle size at the 10‐week follow‐up examination. Conclusions Multifidus muscle recovery is not spontaneous on remission of painful symptoms. Lack of localized, muscle support may be one reason for the high recurrence rate of low back pain following the initial episode.

Evidence of lumbar multifidus muscle wasting ipsilateral to symptoms in patients with acute/subacute low back pain.

The effect of low back pain on the size of the lumbar multifidus muscle was examined using real-time ultrasound imaging. Bilateral scans were performed in 26 patients with acute unilateral low back pain (LBP) symptoms (aged 17-46 years) and 51 normal subjects (aged 19-32 years). In all patients, multifidus cross-sectional area (CSA) was measured from the 2nd to the 5th lumbar vertebrae (L2-5) and in six patients, that of S1 was also measured. In all normal subjects, CSA was measured at L4 and in 10 subjects measurements were made from L2-5. Marked asymmetry of multifidus CSA was seen in patients with the smaller muscle being on the side ipsilateral to symptoms (between-side difference 31 +/- 8%), but this was confined to one vertebral level. Above and below this level of wasting, mean CSA differences were < 6%. In normal subjects, the mean differences were < 5% at all vertebral levels. The site of wasting in patients corresponded to the clinically determined level of symptoms in 24 of the 26 patients, but there was no correlation between the degree of asymmetry and severity of symptoms. Patients had rounder muscles than normal subjects (measured by a shape ratio index), perhaps indicating muscle spasm. Linear measurements of multifidus cross-section were highly correlated with CSA in normal muscles but less so in wasted muscles, so CSA measurements are more accurate than linear dimensions. The fact that reduced CSA, i.e., wasting, was unilateral and isolated to one level suggests that the mechanism of wasting was not generalized disuse atrophy or spinal reflex inhibition.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Long-term effects of specific stabilizing exercises for first-episode low back pain.

Study Design. A randomized clinical trial with 1-year and 3-year telephone questionnaire follow-ups. Objective. To report a specific exercise intervention’s long-term effects on recurrence rates in acute, first-episode low back pain patients. Summary of Background Data. The pain and disability associated with an initial episode of acute low back pain (LBP) is known to resolve spontaneously in the short-term in the majority of cases. However, the recurrence rate is high, and recurrent disabling episodes remain one of the most costly problems in LBP. A deficit in the multifidus muscle has been identified in acute LBP patients, and does not resolve spontaneously on resolution of painful symptoms and resumption of normal activity. Any relation between this deficit and recurrence rate was investigated in the long-term. Methods. Thirty-nine patients with acute, first-episode LBP were medically managed and randomly allocated to either a control group or specific exercise group. Medical management included advice and use of medications. Intervention consisted of exercises aimed at rehabilitating the multifidus in cocontraction with the transversus abdominis muscle. One year and three years after treatment, telephone questionnaires were conducted with patients. Results. Questionnaire results revealed that patients from the specific exercise group experienced fewer recurrences of LBP than patients from the control group. One year after treatment, specific exercise group recurrence was 30%, and control group recurrence was 84% (P < 0.001). Two to three years after treatment, specific exercise group recurrence was 35%, and control group recurrence was 75% (P < 0.01). Conclusion. Long-term results suggest that specific exercise therapy in addition to medical management and resumption of normal activity may be more effective in reducing low back pain recurrences than medical management and normal activity alone.

A Randomized controlled trial of exercise and manipulative therapy for cervicogenic headache

Study Design. A multicenter, randomized controlled trial with unblinded treatment and blinded outcome assessment was conducted. The treatment period was 6 weeks with follow-up assessment after treatment, then at 3, 6, and 12 months. Objectives. To determine the effectiveness of manipulative therapy and a low-load exercise program for cervicogenic headache when used alone and in combination, as compared with a control group. Summary of Background Data. Headaches arising from cervical musculoskeletal disorders are common. Conservative therapies are recommended as the first treatment of choice. Evidence for the effectiveness of manipulative therapy is inconclusive and available only for the short term. There is no evidence for exercise, and no study has investigated the effect of combined therapies for cervicogenic headache. Methods. In this study, 200 participants who met the diagnostic criteria for cervicogenic headache were randomized into four groups: manipulative therapy group, exercise therapy group, combined therapy group, and a control group. The primary outcome was a change in headache frequency. Other outcomes included changes in headache intensity and duration, the Northwick Park Neck Pain Index, medication intake, and patient satisfaction. Physical outcomes included pain on neck movement, upper cervical joint tenderness, a craniocervical flexion muscle test, and a photographic measure of posture. Results. There were no differences in headache-related and demographic characteristics between the groups at baseline. The loss to follow-up evaluation was 3.5%. At the 12-month follow-up assessment, both manipulative therapy and specific exercise had significantly reduced headache frequency and intensity, and the neck pain and effects were maintained (P < 0.05 for all). The combined therapies was not significantly superior to either therapy alone, but 10% more patients gained relief with the combination. Effect sizes were at least moderate and clinically relevant. Conclusion. Manipulative therapy and exercise can reduce the symptoms of cervicogenic headache, and the effects are maintained.

Sensory hypersensitivity occurs soon after whiplash injury and is associated with poor recovery

Hypersensitivity to a variety of sensory stimuli is a feature of persistent whiplash associated disorders (WAD). However, little is known about sensory disturbances from the time of injury until transition to either recovery or symptom persistence. Quantitative sensory testing (pressure and thermal pain thresholds, the brachial plexus provocation test), the sympathetic vasoconstrictor reflex and psychological distress (GHQ‐28) were prospectively measured in 76 whiplash subjects within 1 month of injury and then 2, 3 and 6 months post‐injury. Subjects were classified at 6 months post‐injury using scores on the Neck Disability Index: recovered (<8), mild pain and disability (10–28) or moderate/severe pain and disability (>30). Sensory and sympathetic nervous system tests were also measured in 20 control subjects. All whiplash groups demonstrated local mechanical hyperalgesia in the cervical spine at 1 month post‐injury. This hyperalgesia persisted in those with moderate/severe symptoms at 6 months but resolved by 2 months in those who had recovered or reported persistent mild symptoms. Only those with persistent moderate/severe symptoms at 6 months demonstrated generalised hypersensitivity to all sensory tests. These changes occurred within 1 month of injury and remained unchanged throughout the study period. Whilst no significant group differences were evident for the sympathetic vasoconstrictor response, the moderate/severe group showed a tendency for diminished sympathetic reactivity. GHQ‐28 scores of the moderate/severe group were higher than those of the other two groups. The differences in GHQ‐28 did not impact on any of the sensory measures. These findings suggest that those with persistent moderate/severe symptoms at 6 months display, soon after injury, generalised hypersensitivity suggestive of changes in central pain processing mechanisms. This phenomenon did not occur in those who recover or those with persistent mild symptoms.

Patients With Neck Pain Demonstrate Reduced Electromyographic Activity of the Deep Cervical Flexor Muscles During Performance of the Craniocervical Flexion Test

Study Design. Cross-sectional study. Objective. The present study compared activity of deep and superficial cervical flexor muscles and craniocervical flexion range of motion during a test of craniocervical flexion between 10 patients with chronic neck pain and 10 controls. Summary of Background Data. Individuals with chronic neck pain exhibit reduced performance on a test of craniocervical flexion, and training of this maneuver is effective in management of neck complaints. Although this test is hypothesized to reflect dysfunction of the deep cervical flexor muscles, this has not been tested. Methods. Deep cervical flexor electromyographic activity was recorded with custom electrodes inserted via the nose and fixed by suction to the posterior mucosa of the oropharynx. Surface electrodes were placed over the superficial neck muscles (sternocleidomastoid and anterior scalene). Root mean square electromyographic amplitude and craniocervical flexion range of motion was measured during five incremental levels of craniocervical flexion in supine. Results. There was a strong linear relation between the electromyographic amplitude of the deep cervical flexor muscles and the incremental stages of the craniocervical flexion test for control and individuals with neck pain (P = 0.002). However, the amplitude of deep cervical flexor electromyographic activity was less for the group with neck pain than controls, and this difference was significant for the higher increments of the task (P < 0.05). Although not significant, there was a strong trend for greater sternocleidomastoid and anterior scalene electromyographic activity for the group with neck pain. Conclusions. These data confirm that reduced performance of the craniocervical flexion test is associated with dysfunction of the deep cervical flexor muscles and support the validity of this test for patients with neck pain.

Dizziness and unsteadiness following whiplash injury: characteristic features and relationship with cervical joint position error.

Dizziness and/or unsteadiness are common symptoms of chronic whiplash-associated disorders. This study aimed to report the characteristics of these symptoms and determine whether there was any relationship to cervical joint position error. Joint position error, the accuracy to return to the natural head posture following extension and rotation, was measured in 102 subjects with persistent whiplash-associated disorder and 44 control subjects. Whiplash subjects completed a neck pain index and answered questions about the characteristics of dizziness. The results indicated that subjects with whiplash-associated disorders had significantly greater joint position errors than control subjects. Within the whiplash group, those with dizziness had greater joint position errors than those without dizziness following rotation (rotation (R) 4.5 degrees (0.3) vs 2.9 degrees (0.4); rotation (L) 3.9 degrees (0.3) vs 2.8 degrees (0.4) respectively) and a higher neck pain index (55.3% (1.4) vs 43.1% (1.8)). Characteristics of the dizziness were consistent for those reported for a cervical cause but no characteristics could predict the magnitude of joint position error. Cervical mechanoreceptor dysfunction is a likely cause of dizziness in whiplash-associated disorder.

Co‐activation of the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles during voluntary exercises

The response of the abdominal muscles to voluntary contraction of the pelvic floor (PF) muscles was investigated in women with no history of symptoms of stress urinary incontinence to determine whether there is co‐activation of the muscles surrounding the abdominal cavity during exercises for the PF muscles. Electromyographic (EMG) activity of each of the abdominal muscles was recorded with fine‐wire electrodes in seven parous females. Subjects contracted the PF muscles maximally in three lumbar spine positions while lying supine. In all subjects, the EMG activity of the abdominal muscles was increased above the baseline level during contractions of the PF muscles in at least one of the spinal positions. The amplitude of the increase in EMG activity of obliquus externus abdominis was greatest when the spine was positioned in flexion and the increase in activity of transversus abdominis was greater than that of rectus abdominis and obliquus externus abdominis when the spine was positioned in extension. In an additional pilot experiment, EMG recordings were made from the pubococcygeus and the abdominal muscles with fine‐wire electrodes in two subjects during the performance of three different sub‐maximal isometric abdominal muscle maneuvers. Both subjects showed an increase in EMG activity of the pubococcygeus with each abdominal muscle contraction. The results of these experiments indicate that abdominal muscle activity is a normal response to PF exercise in subjects with no symptoms of PF muscle dysfunction and provide preliminary evidence that specific abdominal exercises activate the PF muscles. Neurourol. Urodynam. 20:31–42, 2001.

Patients with chronic neck pain demonstrate altered patterns of muscle activation during performance of a functional upper limb task

Study Design. Cross-sectional study. Objective. This study compared neck muscle activation patterns during and after a repetitive upper limb task between patients with idiopathic neck pain, whiplash-associated disorders, and controls. Summary of Background Data. Previous studies have identified altered motor control of the upper trapezius during functional tasks in patients with neck pain. Whether the cervical flexor muscles demonstrate altered motor control during functional activities is unknown. Methods. Electromyographic activity was recorded from the sternocleidomastoid, anterior scalenes, and upper trapezius muscles. Root mean square electromyographic amplitude was calculated during and on completion of a functional task. Results. A general trend was evident to suggest greatest electromyograph amplitude in the sternocleidomastoid, anterior scalenes, and left upper trapezius muscles for the whiplash-associated disorders group, followed by the idiopathic group, with lowest electromyographic amplitude recorded for the control group. A reverse effect was apparent for the right upper trapezius muscle. The level of perceived disability (Neck Disability Index score) had a significant effect on the electromyographic amplitude recorded between neck pain patients. Conclusions. Patients with neck pain demonstrated greater activation of accessory neck muscles during a repetitive upper limb task compared to asymptomatic controls. Greater activation of the cervical muscles in patients with neck pain may represent an altered pattern of motor control to compensate for reduced activation of painful muscles. Greater perceived disability among patients with neck pain accounted for the greater electromyographic amplitude of the superficial cervical muscles during performance of the functional task.

development of motor system dysfunction following whiplash injury

&NA; Dysfunction in the motor system is a feature of persistent whiplash associated disorders. Little is known about motor dysfunction in the early stages following injury and of its progress in those persons who recover and those who develop persistent symptoms. This study measured prospectively, motor system function (cervical range of movement (ROM), joint position error (JPE) and activity of the superficial neck flexors (EMG) during a test of cranio‐cervical flexion) as well as a measure of fear of re‐injury (TAMPA) in 66 whiplash subjects within 1 month of injury and then 2 and 3 months post injury. Subjects were classified at 3 months post injury using scores on the neck disability index: recovered (<8), mild pain and disability (10–28) or moderate/severe pain and disability (>30). Motor system function was also measured in 20 control subjects. All whiplash groups demonstrated decreased ROM and increased EMG (compared to controls) at 1 month post injury. This deficit persisted in the group with moderate/severe symptoms but returned to within normal limits in those who had recovered or reported persistent mild pain at 3 months. Increased EMG persisted for 3 months in all whiplash groups. Only the moderate/severe group showed greater JPE, within 1 month of injury, which remained unchanged at 3 months. TAMPA scores of the moderate/severe group were higher than those of the other two groups. The differences in TAMPA did not impact on ROM, EMG or JPE. This study identifies, for the first time, deficits in the motor system, as early as 1 month post whiplash injury, that persisted not only in those reporting moderate/severe symptoms at 3 months but also in subjects who recovered and those with persistent mild symptoms.