H. Ibrikci

Influence of nitrogen rates and row spacing on corn yield, protein content, and other plant parameters

Abstract New maize hybrids has been intensively used as the first and second crop at the Cukurova region of Turkey in recent years. Therefore, nutritional problems of corn needs to be solved for the optimum yield, and protection from the potential insect and disease damages. Influence of nitrogen (N) and row spacing (RS) on corn yield, grain protein content, and selected plant parameters have been studied under field conditions in 1994 and 1995. Nitrogen was applied in the rates of 200, 250, 300, and 350 kg N ha‐1 to main plots where row spacings were 10, 15, 20, and 25 cm in each subplots. Phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) were applied to each plot as basal rates. The experiment was arranged in a split‐plot design in three replications. During course of the experiment and after harvest, selected plant parameters, leaf nutrient contents, root length, grain yield, and crude protein content were measured, and the data were statistically analyzed for determination of treatment effects. The selected plant para...

Phosphorus Use Efficiency of Wheat Genotypes Grown in Calcareous Soils

ABSTRACT Phosphorus (P) deficiency and low P-use efficiency are induced by soil properties, especially in calcareous soils, which are dominant in semi-arid regions of the world such as the Mediterranean region. Alternative approaches to P fertilization involve exploiting plant genetics in order to achieve more efficient use of P by the growing crop. Accordingly, in a greenhouse pot experiment, we evaluated P-efficiency in wheat genotypes grown in typical calcareous soils in southern Turkey. Ten common local genotypes were grown in six soil series for eight weeks using five P application rates (0, 25, 50, 100, and 200 mg P kg−1). Dry matter (DM) yield and P content were significantly increased by increasing P rates, with significant differences between soils. Some genotypes performed better under P stress because of better P utilization efficiency. Shoot DM was the most sensitive indicator of genetic variability under P-deficient conditions. Genotypes classified as efficient-responsive (Adana-99, 1014, Golia, Balatilla) had above average DM yield when P was not added, and responded well to P applications; efficient-non-responsive genotypes (Firat-93, Seri-82, Genc-99, Panda) had below average DM yield, but responded to P applications; inefficient-non-responsive genotypes (Fuat Bey and Ceyhan-99) had below average DM yield; and no genotypes were in the inefficient responsive category. Such P response categorization is needed for better breeding programs for nutrient-use efficiency. The study may aid in selecting P-efficient genotypes in low-P soils, especially where little P is used. The use of P-efficient genotypes should be seen as complement to, rather than a substitute for, chemical P fertilization depending on local conditions.

Chapter three – Significance of Phosphorus for Agriculture and the Environment in the West Asia and North Africa Region

Abstract Fertilizers have been largely responsible for the massive increases in world food production in the past half century that permitted accelerated global population growth to current unprecedented levels. Fertilizer use not only impacts crop yields but also affects animal production. While nitrogen (N) has been the main driver of such changes, phosphorus (P) also has a major role. Like N, the use of P fertilizers can have implications beyond the farmers’ fields, if excessive amounts are applied. The past four decades have witnessed overuse of P fertilizers as well as animal manures in the intensive agricultures of some European countries and North America. Yet ironically in many areas of the world, notably Africa, agricultural output is largely constrained by low soil P in combination with little or no P fertilizer application. Rock phosphate is the global source of the raw material for P fertilizer. However, resources are finite, and therefore efficient and wise use is of paramount importance. The vast West Asia and North Africa (WANA) region is one where agricultural output is beset with major environmental constraints. Yet fertilizer use in the region is still in the incipient to early development stage, ironically in view of the fact that major deposits of exploitable rock phosphate are found in the region, mainly in Morocco and Tunisia. With the predominantly calcareous soils of the region being inherently low in available P, the main focus in the past few decades has been on promoting P use and its efficient management in rainfed and irrigated agriculture. In the 1960s and 1970s, virtually no fertilizer was used in the region, with rapid increases in N and to a lesser extent P since then. The sharp transition from low-input traditional agriculture to conventional modern agriculture has particular implications for efficient P fertilizer use from the economic and environmental standpoints. This review seeks to present a broad overview of P in countries of the WANA region, which varies considerably with respect to economic development and the level of agricultural research, education and extension. It presents the background global considerations with respect to P supplies and use, as well the agricultural context for the region, including climate and cropping systems; it draws heavily on research on soils and soil-P chemistry from Spain, which though technically excluded from WANA, has much in common with the Mediterranean region, and highlights P research from Pakistan at the eastern fringes of WANA. It highlights the discrepancy in P use between developed and developing countries such as those of WANA. The review to some extent builds on extensive research carried out in Syria by the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), with secondary emphasis on countries of the region, many of which collaborate closely with ICARDA. The review covers the past three decades, highlighting progress in field trials on fertilizer use with the regions main crops in relation to rainfall, cropping systems, soil test levels, and efforts to identify P-efficient genotypes and enhance soil P fertility with mycorrhizae. Despite the many isolated, uncoordinated, and often-overlapping, and indeed conflicting, research efforts that have taken place in the region, we have attempted to show a gradual progression in knowledge of P in relation to soils and crops. Developments with regard to P, in the overall framework of agricultural research, have contributed to increased output in the WANA region. Much of the documented research has contributed to the global information on soils of arid and semi-arid regions. Despite achievements in applied research, poorly developed technology transfer systems and weak analytical facilities remain as stumbling blocks to the widespread dissemination of the accumulated knowledge on P use to farmers.

Micronutrient constraints to crop production in the Middle East-West Asia region: significance, research, and management

Abstract In addition to nine major nutrients, eight micronutrients [i.e., boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn)] are also essential for healthy growth and reproduction of higher plants. Globally, crop production is largely dependent on chemical fertilizer use, especially in developed countries. While fertilizer use, particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), has increased substantially in the past four decades in developing countries, such as Pakistan and India, fertilizer use is limited in many areas of the world where agriculture is constrained by harsh climatic conditions, especially low rainfall. The disparity between developed and developing countries is particularly acute with respect to micronutrient awareness and use. One area of the world that is characterized by major climatic and soil constraints, often exacerbated by unfavorable socioeconomic conditions, is the Middle East–West Asia region. This review provides a current perspective on that region of the world where crop yields are invariably low due to drought, with limited inputs and inherent soil nutrient deficiencies. With a high population, there is an urgent need to sustainably expand output. However, there is generally limited awareness of the potential significance of micronutrients in agriculture as factors in crop production, as well as limited research on micronutrients in most countries of the region. The long history of cultivated agriculture in the Middle East–West Asia region and the peculiar characteristics of its soils and climate predispose it toward problems of micronutrient deficiencies. Over three decades ago, a global study on micronutrients indicated widespread deficiencies of iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), in contrast to copper (Cu) and manganese (Mn), but suggested the likelihood of excess levels of boron (B) in some countries of the region. This overview primarily addresses three focal points in the region, Pakistan in the east, Syria/Lebanon/Turkey in the center, and Spain on the western fringes, reflecting the zones of activity of the respective authors; the latter focal point is a developed region, where, because of soil and climatic similarities, the research is relevant to the whole Middle East–West Asia region. While providing some international context, this article brings together and summarizes published work in the areas of crop and soil micronutrient availability, their behavior in soils in relation to crop growth, and strategies to deal with either deficiency or toxicity, including crop selection for tolerance and subsequent genetic manipulation. Considerable strides have been made in elucidating the significance of both Zn and Fe in the regions mainly calcareous soils, through soil and plant analysis, with the resulting knowledge providing a sound basis for management interventions through validated field research. While B deficiency is common in some countries such as Pakistan, the problem of B toxicity (BT), where it exists, is only handled by crop adaptation. The review also highlights the implications of micronutrient constraints in the soil–plant–human–animal continuum. Intensification of agricultural production as a result of overall macronutrient use, expansion of irrigation, and introduction of new or “niche” crops is likely to accentuate micronutrient deficiencies in the region, but developments such as conservation agriculture may counteract this trend. As the trend for land-use intensification increases because of higher yields due to fertilizer use and irrigation and the introduction of new crops, and as other nutrient constraints are eliminated, micronutrients will inevitably assume greater significance in the future agriculture of the Middle East–West Asia region together with improvements in plant breeding and crop management.

Differential Responses of Barley Landraces and Improved Barley Cultivars to Nitrogen-Phosphorus Fertilizer

ABSTRACT Barley is traditionally grown in the Mediterranean region as a dryland crop, invariably under drought-stressed conditions and often without inputs such as fertilizer. Following research that demonstrated the benefits of fertilization, even under less-than-favourable rainfall condition, fertilizer use on cereals has increased dramatically in the past few decades in countries of West Asia-North Africa. With developments in breeding new barley cultivars for higher yield, combined with disease resistance and environmental adaptability, it is crucial to assess the extent to which such cultivars respond to fertilizer inputs as this may affect aspects of a breeding strategy, particularly the choice of germplasm for adaptation in any particular environment. Thus, we assessed the yield potential of 30 barley cultivars with a range of germplasm types, including new cultivars and landraces, in a greenhouse in two soil types with and without adequate nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer, i.e., low and high fertility. By comparison with the unfertilized low fertility soils, the fertilizer treatment increased yield parameters by about 10-fold. However, the rankings of some cultivars changed markedly with fertilization; some increased, others showed poor responses and decreased relatively, and two performed well with and without fertilizer. Based on the differential responses at the initial screening stage in the greenhouse, it is possible to identify lines or cultivars that are highly responsive to fertilizers and to incorporate such germplasm for further development to produce high-yielding cultivars for commercial adoption by farmers.

Distribution and fractionation of soil phosphorus in particle‐size separates in soils of Western Turkey

Abstract Evaluation of soil phosphorus (P) status is not possible without considering the various forms of P present and distribution of these forms in the soil fractions. Distribution of organic and total P on the whole soil and soil separates were examined in the selected three soil profiles representative to three great soil groups found in Izmir province in the Aegean region of Turkey. The results obtained indicated that total and organic P decrease, to a certain depth, as the depths of the soil profile increases. However, there is an increase in total P content in the lower parts of the B or in the upper parts of the C horizons in Profile I. In all the profiles other than Profile I, two‐thirds or more of the total and organic P contents of the whole soil were concentrated in the clay plus silt fractions. The total P contents of the silt and sand fractions in Profile I were much more higher than the clay fraction throughout the profile. In all the profiles, aluminum‐(Al), iron‐(Fe), and reductant‐(Red...

Determination of potassium and magnesium status of soils using different soil extraction procedures in the upper part of mesopotamia (in the Harran plain)

Abstract It is a common belief that most of the Turkish soils are rich in potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) for crop production and that there is no crop response to fertilization of these nutrients. However, it is currently a common agricultural practice by farmers to use an excess amount of K and, in some instances, Mg fertilizers especially for horticultural cash crops. Two biological (pot and Neubauer experiments) and four chemical extraction methods (0.3 N HCl, 0.5 N HCl, 1 N NH4OAc, and 0.5 N NaHCO3) were employed to measure the amounts of extractable K and Mg in the selected ten soil series of Harran Plain (Fertile Crescent) in the upper part of the Mesopotamia area. Italian grass (Lolium italicum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) were used as test plants in the pot and Neubauer experiments, respectively. The amount of slowly available K extracted using four chemical extraction methods were much higher in two soil series (Ekinyazi and Akcakale) than that of the other soil series. The Akcakale series ...

Contribution of soil mineral nitrogen in wheat production

A substantial amount of soil mineral nitrogen (Nmin) (NO3—N + NH4—N) exists in the effective rooting depth of most profiles. However, soil Nmin is usually not taken into account in fertilizer recommendations for crop production. The level of preplant-soil Nmin in the Cukurova region of Turkey is considerably high based on the high level of N application to many field and greenhouse crops. Therefore, soil Nmin was determined in the profiles of the wheat-field experiments, which were conducted at eight different locations. Nitrogen was applied in six rates as 1/2 at planting, 1/4 at tillering and 1/4 at booting stages. Wheat-grain yield was determined following harvest. Even though the yield was increased by the added rates of N, it was greater where the preplant soil Nmin values were measured as relatively high. Two years of results show that there are substantial amounts of soil Nmin in the profile, and it needs to be taken into account in fertilizer N recommendations.

Spatial and Temporal Variability of Groundwater Nitrate Concentrations in Irrigated Mediterranean Agriculture

As nitrogen (N) fertilizer-use efficiency rarely exceeds 50% in most agricultural systems, the potential leaching of N to the groundwater, particularly under irrigated conditions, has economic, health, and environmental implications. Research in the Akarsu irrigation district in the Lower Seyhan Plain in southern Turkey sought to determine spatial and temporal variability of groundwater (GW) nitrate (NO3) concentrations in 2007–2008. Shallow groundwater observation wells 3 m deep were installed at different locations to represent the whole irrigation district. Groundwater samples were collected (February, April, July, October) and analyzed for ammonium (NH4) and NO3 concentrations. Because NH4 values were negligible, only NO3 data were processed to determine spatial and temporal variability and then used to develop regional NO3 maps using geographic information systems. Groundwater NO3 concentrations ranged between 0.17 and 55.96 mg L–1 during the 2 years, only exceeding the critical 50 mg L–1 concentration in 1% of the area sampled. The areal mean of NO3 concentration was greatest in February, indicating a potential N leaching of unused N from the early season with intensive rainfall, especially in wheat-growing areas. Groundwater NO3 concentrations decreased after February; however, during the peak irrigation season in July, NO3 was relatively low because of crop uptake during spring and summer. In about half the area, groundwater NO3 concentrations ranged between 20 and 50 mg L–1 and were thus marginal relative to the critical pollution level. As N fertilizer use will continue to increase, especially with the expanded irrigation that is now occurring in the Mediterranean region, regular monitoring of groundwater NO3 is advisable under such conditions.

Genotypic Responses of Corn to Phosphorus Fertilizer Rates in Calcareous Soils

In the Mediterranean region, much emphasis is placed on the role of fertilizers in enhancing crop production to achieve food security. Given the complex nature of phosphorus (P) reactions in soils, considerable research has dealt with fertilizer aspects related to efficient P use, but comparatively less emphasis has been given to plant variation with respect to P efficiency. In this study, selection and adaptation of P‐efficient corn genotypes was seen as one possible approach to enhancing P efficiency. Thus, a greenhouse experiment with 10 corn genotypes (traditional to modern), five P application rates (0–200 mg kg−1), and four field trials with three genotypes for 2 years were carried out on various calcareous soils (Vertic Torrifluvent, Vertic Calciorthid, Entic Chromoxerert, and Typic Xerofluvent). Measurements were made of root characteristics. Treatments in the field trials were five P application rates as main plots (0–68 P ha−1) and three corn genotypes as subplots. Genotypes were selected for the field trials from the greenhouse experiment as “efficient‐responsive,” “efficient‐nonresponsive,” and “inefficient‐responsive.” Dry‐matter (DM) yield and plant P uptake by plants increased with P application rates in the greenhouse experiment. Root length and mass were considerably increased by increasing P levels. Genotypes were classified for P efficiency. The studies indicated that because corn genotypes respond to P‐fertilizer application differently, this trait could be utilized to exploit native and applied P more efficiently, especially at low levels of available P and when P‐ fertilizer use is limited. This differential response derives from morphological, physiological, and genetic variability among the genotypes. Although genotypic efficiency is important for fertilizer management, the contribution of the efficiency is not a substitute for fertilizers, especially if high yields are required. Nevertheless, breeding for P‐use efficiency should be a component of any program to improve crop yield potential.