H.J. Blythe

Two magnetic regimes in doped ZnO corresponding to a dilute magnetic semiconductor and a dilute magnetic insulator.

Films of ZnO doped with magnetic ions Mn and Co and, in some cases, with Al have been fabricated with a very wide range of carrier densities. Ferromagnetic behavior is observed in both insulating and metallic films, but not when the carrier density is intermediate. Insulating films exhibit variable range hopping at low temperatures and are ferromagnetic at room temperature due to the interaction of the localized spins with static localized states. The magnetism is quenched when carriers in the localized states become mobile. In the metallic (degenerate semiconductor) range, robust ferromagnetism reappears together with very strong magneto-optic signals and room temperature anomalous Hall data. This demonstrates the polarization of the conduction bands and indicates that, when ZnO is doped into the metallic regime, it behaves as a genuine magnetic semiconductor.

Room-temperature magneto-optics of ferromagnetic transition-metal-doped ZnO thin films

Magneto-optic studies of ZnO doped with transition metals Co, Mn, V, and Ti indicate a significant magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) at the ZnO band edge at room temperature, together with an associated dispersive Faraday rotation. Similar spectra occur for each dopant, which implies that the ferromagnetism is an intrinsic property of the bulk ZnO lattice. At 10 K, additional paramagnetic contributions to the MCD are observed, but above about 150 K, the magnitude of the MCD signal is dominated by the ferromagnetism and is almost temperature independent. The MCD at the ZnO band edge shows room temperature hysteretic behavior.

Carrier-induced ferromagnetism in n-type ZnMnAlO and ZnCoAlO thin films at room temperature

The realization of semiconductors that are ferromagnetic above room temperature will potentially lead to a new generation of spintronic devices with revolutionary electrical and optical properties. Transition temperatures in doped ZnO are high but, particularly for Mn doping, the reported moments have been small. We show that by careful control of both oxygen deficiency and aluminium doping the ferromagnetic moments measured at room temperature in n-type ZnMnO and ZnCoO are close to the ideal values of 5?B and 3?B respectively. Furthermore a clear correlation between the magnetization per transition metal ion and the ratio of the number of carriers to the number of transition metal donors was established as is expected for carrier-induced ferromagnetism for both the Mn and Co doped films. The dependence of the magnetization on carrier density is similar to that predicted for the transition temperature for a dilute magnetic semiconductor in which the exchange between the transition metal ions is through the free carriers. We observe a positive magnetoresistance but no anomalous Hall effect or anisotropic magnetoresistance in the ferromagnetic samples.

Thickness dependent magnetic and magnetotransport properties of strain-relaxed La0.7Ca0.3MnO3 films

La0.7Ca0.3MnO3 films with thicknesses between 2 and 300 nm were fabricated on LaAlO3, SrTiO3, and (LaAlO3)0.3(Sr2AlTaO6)0.7 (LSAT) substrates using pulsed laser deposition. After annealing at 950 °C in flowing oxygen, on LaAlO3 and LSAT, strain-relaxed epitaxial films of high quality were obtained. The magnetization, resistivity, and magnetoresistance of the films was studied as a function of thickness. Down to a thickness of about 4 nm no decrease of the saturation magnetization could be detected; the Curie temperature decreases slightly with thickness in agreement with finite size scaling theory. The thickness dependence of the conductance can be understood as a size-effect in thin films; there is no indication of an electrically dead interfacial layer.

Investigation of magnetite thin films produced by pulsed laser deposition

Abstract Thin films of magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ) with thicknesses in the range 10–1000 nm have been produced by the XeCl excimer laser ( λ = 308 nm) ablation of both Fe 3 O 4 and metallic 57 Fe targets. Deposition conditions have been investigated in an attempt to fabricate films reproducibly at low laser fluences so as to minimize ablation bouldering. The ablation of metallic Fe has been shown to produce a smaller concentration of boulders than the ablation of bulk magnetite. It is believed that this is mainly due to the difference in primary ablation mechanisms between the two target materials. The use of single-crystal, lattice-matching substrates was found to be necessary at lower fluences (1–3 J cm −2 ) for the ablation of metallic Fe, whereas polycrystalline, non-lattice-matching substrates were adequate for deposition with moderate laser fluences (5–6 J cm −2 ). Film quality has been assessed by a range of techniques including XRD, SEM, AFM/MFM and CEMS. Using CEMS it has been established that the films produced from a metallic target contained a significant amount of metallic Fe, together with secondary oxide phases. The influence of film thickness on the Verwey transition has been investigated via electrical conductivity and SQUID magnetometry. It is found that there is a systematic reduction of Verwey temperature with decreasing film thickness; this is attributed to the effect of strain.

Room temperature ferromagnetism in metallic and insulating (In1−xFex)2O3 thin films

Fe-doped In2O3 thin films are deposited on sapphire substrates using pulsed laser ablation. The effects of Fe concentration and oxygen partial pressure on the structure, magnetism and transport properties of (In1−xFex)2O3 films are studied systematically. A detailed analysis of the structural properties suggests the substitution of Fe dopant ions with mixture valences and rules out the presence of clusters and secondary phases as the source of ferromagnetism. Systematic investigations of transport properties for (In1−xFex)2O3 films with a wide range of carrier densities reveal that they occur in both metallic and insulating regimes. The insulating films exhibit variable range hopping at low temperatures and show temperature dependent ferromagnetism, which can be explained by bound magnetic polarons mechanism. For the metallic films, the carrier densities play a crucial role in their robust ferromagnetism and the resistivity and magnetization are independent of temperature; the carrier-mediated exchange me...

Giant magnetoresistance in granular electrodeposited CuCo films

Abstract Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) has been observed in the electrodeposited, granular thin film alloys Cu 1- x Co x . For a value of x = 0.20, an ‘as-deposited’ sample exhibits a GMR ratio of 5%. After annealing at 600°C this increases to 10%. Corresponding measurements of the magnetization are also reported and are interpreted on the basis of superparamagnetism.

A review of the magnetic relaxation and its application to the study of atomic defects in α-iron and its diuluted alloys

Abstract This review presents a comprehensive survey on intensive studies performed during the last decades on point defect reactions on α‐iron (α‐Fe) and its diluted alloys. Our intention is to give an actual account of the knowledge accumulated on this subject, as it has been obtained predominantly by means of the magnetic after‐effect (MAE) spectroscopy. After a concise introduction into the theoretical and experimental fundamentals of this technique, the main concern is focused on the presentation and detailed discussion of the MAE spectra arising — after low‐temperature electron (e–)‐ or neutron(n)‐irradiation and subsequent annealing — in: (i) high‐purity α‐Fe and α‐Fe doped with (ii) substitutional solutes (like Ni, V, Al, Cu, Ti, Be, Si, Mn, …) or (iii) interstitial solutes (like O, H, C, N). During the course of systematic annealing treatments, these respective spectra undergo dramatic variations at specific temperatures thereby revealing in great detail the underlying intrinsic reactions of the radiation‐induced defects, i.e., reorientation, migration, clustering, dissolution and finally annihilation. In alloyed Fe systems the corresponding reaction sequences are even multiplied due to additional interactions between defects and solute atoms. Most valuable information concerning formation‐, dissociation‐ and binding enthalpies of small, mixed clusters (of the type CiVk, NiVk; i, k ≥ 1) has been obtained in high‐purity α‐Fe base material which, after charging with C or N, had been e–‐irradiated. Concerning the basic recovery mechanisms in α‐Fe, two complementary results are obtained from the analysis of the various systems: (i) in high‐purity and substitutionally alloyed α‐Fe the recovery in Stage‐III (200 K) is governed by a three‐dimensionally migrating (H M I = 0.56 eV) stable interstitial (dumb‐bell); (ii) following the formation and dissociation kinetics of small clusters (C1Vk, N1Vk) in interstitially alloyed α‐Fe the migration enthalpy of the monovacancy must hold the following relation H M N (0.76 eV) < H M C (0.84 eV) < H M V1. These results are in clear agreement with the so‐called two‐interstitial model (2IM) in α‐Fe – a conclusion being further substantiated by a systematic comparison with the results obtained from nonrelaxational techniques, like i.e. positron annihilation (PA), which by their authors are preferentially interpreted in terms of the one‐interstitial model (1IM).

Giant magnetoresistance in granular cobalt copper thin films prepared by pulsed laser ablation deposition

Giant magnetoresistance of up to 9.5% in 1.5 T at 14 K has been observed in Co19Cu81, thin films prepared by pulsed laser ablation deposition from rotated, split targets. The as-grown films show a small GMR effect but this may be enhanced by a factor of 4 by appropriate annealing. The volume ratio of material in the target is found to be reproduced in the film. Measurements of the remanence and initial susceptibility of the films indicate a distribution of energy barriers to the rotation of the magnetic moments of the cobalt particles and also the presence of inter-particle interactions. The choice of operating parameters to control these effects and thus optimise the GMR is discussed.

Alloys by precision electrodeposition

We show that a Cu–Ni alloy film of arbitrary composition may be grown by electrodepositing well-defined submonolayer quantities of Cu and Ni in alternation. Active computer control of the deposition process is used to compensate for undesired electrochemical processes, such as partial redissolution of the Ni. Magnetic measurements were used to characterize alloy homogeneity. With this electrodeposition method it is possible to tailor the composition profile of a film with subnanometer precision. As an example, Cu0.19Ni0.81/Cu0.79Ni0.21 alloy/alloy multilayers were fabricated which gave prominent satellite peaks in high angle x-ray diffraction patterns.