H. J. Eysenck

Sensation seeking in England and America: Cross-cultural, age, and sex comparisons.

This study compared the factor structure of the Sensation-Seeking Scale (SSS) in English and American samples, and a new form of the SSS, applicable to both samples, was constructed. Three of the four factors showed good crossnational and cross-sex reliability. English and American males did not differ on the total SSS score, but American females scored higher than English females. Males in both countries scored higher than females on the total SSS score and on the Thrill and Adventure-Seeking and Disinhibition subscales. Significant age declines occurred for both sexes, particularly on Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Disinhibition.

THE EFFECTS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY : AN EVALUATION

The recommendation of the Committee on Training in Clinical Psychology of the American Psychological Association regarding the training of clinical psychologists in the field of psychotherapy has been criticized by the writer in a series of papers [10, 11, 12]. Of the arguments presented in favor of the policy advocated by the Committee, the most cogent one is perhaps that which refers to the social need for the skills possessed by the psychotherapist. In view of the importance of the issues involved, it seemed worth while to examine the evidence relating to the actual effects of psychotherapy, in an attempt to seek clarification on a point of fact.

A Model for personality

1 General Features of the Model.- 1.1 Models and Explanations.- 1.2 The Development of a Paradigm.- 1.3 Theory Making: Correlational and Experimental Psychology.- 1.4.1 Theory Testing: Constraints and Complications.- 1.4.2 Theory Testing: Some Sources of Error.- 2 The Psychophysiology of Extraversion and Neuroticism.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 The Physiological Basis of Extraversion.- 2.3 Extraversion and Electrocortical Activity.- 2.4 Extraversion and Cortical Evoked Potentials.- 2.5 Extraversion and the Orienting Reaction.- 2.5.1 Stimulus Characteristics.- 2.5.2 Subject Selection.- 2.5.3 Measures of Electrodermal Recording.- 2.5.4 Conclusions.- 2.6 Extraversion and Pupillary Response.- 2.7 The Interaction of Extraversion and Neuroticism.- 2.7.1 Neuroticism and Stress.- 2.7.2 Normal and Patient Populations.- 2.7.3 Neuroticism and Emotional Response Patterning.- 2.8 Conclusions.- 3 A Survey of the Effects of Brain Lesions upon Personality.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 The Brain-Damaged Personality.- 3.3 Laterality of Lesion and Personality.- 3.4 Frontal Lesions and Personality.- 3.5 Cingulate Gyrus Lesions.- 3.6 Amygdala Lesions and Violence.- 3.7 Hypothalamic Lesions, Aggression and Sex.- 3.8 Thalamic Lesions.- 3.9 Temporal Lobe Lesions and Personality.- 3.10 Brain-Stem Arousal Systems and Personality.- 3.11 Individual Differences in Response to Cortical Stimulants and Depressants.- 3.12 Personality Processes.- 3.13 Brain and Personality: A Synopsis.- 4 The Genetic and Environmental Architecture of Psychoticism, Extraversion and Neuroticism.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 The Biometrical Approach.- 4.2.1 Basic Model.- 4.2.2 Estimation of Parameters in the Model Using MZ and DZ Twins.- 4.3 Empirical Studies.- 4.3.1 Older Studies.- 4.3.2 Studies Involving the EPQ and Similar Questionnaires.- 4.4 Conclusion.- 5 Personality and Conditioning.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Basic Issues: The Major Theories.- 5.2.1 Pavlovian Typology.- 5.2.2 Modifications of the Pavlovian System.- 5.2.3 The Personality Theory of Eysenck.- 5.2.4 The Drive Theory of Spence.- 5.2.5 Grays Reformulation of the Eysenck Theory.- 5.2.6 Summary.- 5.3 Basic Issues: The Period of Aufklarung.- 5.3.1 Summary.- 5.4 Newer Perspectives: Determinants of Responding.- 5.4.1 Studies Including Personality.- 5.4.2 Studies Excluding Personality.- 5.4.3 Summary.- 5.5 New Perspectives: Recent Extensions.- 5.5.1 Substantive Areas.- 5.5.1.1 Conditioning in Infancy.- 5.5.1.2 Response Topography.- 5.5.1.3 Extinction.- 5.5.1.4 Attitude and Evaluative Conditioning.- 5.5.2 Theoretical Issues.- 5.5.2.1 V-Form and C-Form Responding.- 5.5.2.2 Psychoticism as a Dimension of Personality.- 5.5.2.3 Cognition.- 5.5.2.4 Conditionability.- 5.6 Conditioning and Personality.- 6 Learning, Memory and Personality.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Basic Theoretical Constructs.- 6.2.1 Attention: Selectivity and Intensity.- 6.2.2 Working Memory.- 6.2.3 Summary.- 6.3 Effects of Anxiety on Learning and Memory.- 6.3.1 Spence and Spence (1966).- 6.3.2 Anxiety: Cognitive Factors.- 6.3.3 Working-Memory Capacity.- 6.3.4 Levels of Processing and Elaboration of Encoding.- 6.3.5 Towards a Theory of Anxiety.- 6.3.6 Success and Failure.- 6.4 Effects of Introversion - Extraversion on Learning and Memory.- 6.4.1 Interrelationship Between Introversion - Extraversion and Anxiety.- 6.4.2 Introversion - Extraversion: Reward and Punishment.- 6.4.3 Cortical Arousal.- 6.4.4 Retention Interval.- 6.4.5 Distraction.- 6.4.6 Task Difficulty.- 6.4.7 Retrieval: Speed and Power.- 6.4.8 Summary and Conclusions.- 7 Personality and Social Behaviour.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Affiliation and Personal Space.- 7.3 Birth Order.- 7.4 Group Interaction and Social Skills.- 7.5 Speech Patterns.- 7.6 Expressive Behaviour and Person Perception.- 7.7 Expressive Control.- 7.8 Field Dependence.- 7.9 Suggestibility.- 7.10 Conflict Handling.- 7.11 Attraction.- 7.12 Sexual Behaviour.- 7.13 Attitudes and Values.- 7.14 Recreational Interests.- 7.15 Occupational Choice and Aptitude.- 7.16 Industrial Performance.- 7.17 Academic Aptitude and Achievement.- 7.18 Mental Health.- 7.19 Psychotherapy.- 7.20 Drug Use and Abuse.- 7.21 Crime and Delinquency.- 7.22 Cross-National Differences.- 7.23 Conclusions.- 8 A Critique of Eysencks Theory of Personality.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Personality Description.- 8.3 Biological Explanation.- 8.4 An Alternative Theory.- 8.5 Coda 1: Strength of the Nervous System.- 8.6 Coda 2: Psychoticism.- Epilogue.

Impulsiveness and Venturesomeness: Their Position in a Dimensional System of Personality Description

A 63-item questionnaire was constructed for the measurement of three primary personality traits; impulsiveness, venturesomeness, and empathy. This questionnaire, together with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire which measures personality dimensions Psychoticism, Neuroticism, and Extraversion, was administered to 402 male and 787 female adult subjects. Factor analysis of the questionnaire resulted in three factors similar to those postulated, and made possible the construction of scales for their reliable measurement. These scales were then located in the three-dimensional space created by the three higher-order factors Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism, and it was found that Venturesomeness and Impulsiveness correlated positively with Psychoticism and Extraversion, but while Venturesomeness correlated negatively with Neuroticism, Impulsiveness correlated positively with Neuroticism. Empathy only correlated with Neuroticism (positively). The three primaries were largely independent of each other. Men were higher on Venturesomeness and lower on Empathy; there were no sex differences on Impulsiveness. A discussion is given of the psychological meaning of such factors as those here reported.

Dimensions of personality : 16, 5 or 3? ― Criteria for a taxonomic paradigm

Abstract It is suggested that what is needed in personality research is a paradigm which would give rise to coordinated research work (“normal science”) directed in part at the elimination or clarification of anomalies. Several such paradigms have in fact been suggested, so that clearly what is needed is a set of criteria to decide between them. Several such criteria are put forward, and an attempt is made to apply them to three major systems, namely Cattells 16 PF, the Norman “big 5”, and the Eysenck PEN system. It is suggested that if agreement could be reached on these criteria, we might be able to approach agreement on the substantive issue of what are the major dimensions of personality.

Four ways five factors are not basic

This is a reply to the Costa and McCrae article entitled: “Four ways five factors are basic” [(1992) Personality and Individual Differences, 13(6), 653–665]. This article takes up the challenge and discusses four major criticisms of the 5-factor model. The first criticism relates to the level of the hierarchical model of personality at which different factors arise, suggesting that 3 of the 5 factors in the Costa and McCrae model are essentially primaries, often highly intercorrelated, and linked closely with psychoticism. The second criticism is directed at the failure of Costa and McCrae to discuss the overwhelming evidence from meta-analyses of factorial studies that 3, and not 5 factors emerged at the highest level. The third criticism is directed at the lack of a nomological network or theoretical underpinning for the 5 factors, and the fourth is directed at the failure of providing a biological link between genetic causation and behavioural organization. All four criticisms suggested that the postulation of the 5-factor model is a premature crystallization of spurious orthodoxy.

The causes and cures of criminality

1. Introduction.- 2. The Constitutional Theory of Criminality.- 3. Crime and Personality.- 4. Criminality, Heredity, and Environment.- 5. A Biological Theory of Criminality.- 6. The Function and Effectiveness of Sentencing.- 7. The Prevention and Treatment of Illegal Behavior.- 8. Sexual Deviations.- 9. Summary and Conclusions.- References.

The conditioning model of neurosis

The long-term persistence of neurotic symptoms, such as anxiety, poses difficult problems for any psychological theory. An attempt is made to revive the Watson-Mowrer conditioning theory and to avoid the many criticisms directed against it in the past. It is suggested that recent research has produced changes in learning theory that can be used to render this possible. In the first place, the doctrine of equipotentiality has been shown to be wrong, and some such concept as Seligmans “preparedness” is required, that is the notion that certain CS are biologically prepared to be more readily connected with anxiety responses than others. In the second place, the law of extinction has to be amended, and the law of incubation or enhancement added, according to which the exposure of the CS-only may, under certain specified conditions, have the effect of increasing the strength of the CR, rather than reducing it. The major conditions favouring incubation are (1) Pavlovian B conditioning, that is a type of conditioning in which the CR is a drive; (2) a strong UCS, and (3) short exposure of the CS-only.

The definition and measurement of psychoticism

In this paper an attempt is made to answer certain questions and criticisms concerning the concept of psychoticism (P) as a dimension of personality. The points addressed are: (1) Is it reasonable to talk about psychosis as a unitary concept, rather than about separate, unrelated disorders (schizophrenia, manic-depressive disorder)? (2) Is such a concept generalizable to form a continuum of ‘psychoticism’ with normality? (3) Is psychoticism related to psychopathy rather than to psychosis? (4) What methodology can be used to answer questions like those raised above to make answers more compelling than the suggestive naming of psychometric factors? It is suggested that an experimental approach must be combined with a psychometric one to obtain answers which go beyond the sterility often associated with a purely correlational approach, as suggested by Cronbach (1957; American Psychologist, 12, 671–684).

Meta-analysis and its problems.

Including all relevant material--good, bad, and indifferent--in meta-analysis admits the subjective judgments that meta-analysis was designed to avoid. Several problems arise in meta-analysis: regressions are often non-linear; effects are often multivariate rather than univariate; coverage can be restricted; bad studies may be included; the data summarised may not be homogeneous; grouping different causal factors may lead to meaningless estimates of effects; and the theory-directed approach may obscure discrepancies. Meta-analysis may not be the one best method for studying the diversity of fields for which it has been used.