H. Thybo

Magma-compensated crustal thinning in continental rift zones

Continental rift zones are long, narrow tectonic depressions in the Earth’s surface where the entire lithosphere has been modified in extension. Rifting can eventually lead to rupture of the continental lithosphere and creation of new oceanic lithosphere or, alternatively, lead to formation of wide sedimentary basins around failed rift zones. Conventional models of rift zones include three characteristic features: surface manifestation as an elongated topographic trough, Moho shallowing due to crustal thinning, and reduced seismic velocity in the uppermost mantle due to decompression melting or heating from the Earth’s interior. Here we demonstrate that only the surface manifestation is observed at the Baikal rift zone, whereas the crustal and mantle characteristics can be ruled out by a new seismic profile across southern Lake Baikal in Siberia. Instead we observe a localized zone in the lower crust which has exceptionally high seismic velocity and is highly reflective. We suggest that the expected Moho uplift was compensated by magmatic intrusion into the lower crust, producing the observed high-velocity zone. This finding demonstrates a previously unknown role for magmatism in rifting processes with significant implications for estimation of stretching factors and modelling of sedimentary basins around failed rift structures.

The influence of pre-existing structures on the evolution of the southern Kenya Rift Valley — evidence from seismic and gravity studies

The Kenya Rift is an active continental rift that has developed since the Late Oligocene. Although a thermal origin for the rifting episode is indicated by the scale of volcanism and its relative timing with uplift and faulting, the influence of pre-existing lithospheric structural controls is poorly understood. The interpretation of a 430-km-long seismic refraction and gravity line across the southern part of the Kenya Rift shows that the rift is developed across a transition zone, thought to represent the sheared Proterozoic boundary between the Archaean Nyanza Craton and the mobile Mozambique Belt. This zone of weakness has been exploited by the recent thermal rifting event. The Moho is at a depth of 33 km beneath the Archaean craton in the western part of the profile, and 40 km beneath the Mozambique Belt in the east. A few kilometres of localised crustal thinning has developed across the transition from thin to thick crust. At the surface, brittle faulting has formed an asymmetric rift basin 3.6 km deep, filled with low-velocity volcanic rocks. Basement velocities show a transition across the same area from low velocities (6.0 km s−1) in the Archaean, to high velocities (6.35 km s−1) in the Proterozoic. Mid-crustal layers show no deformation that can be attributed to the rifting event. Poorly constrained upper mantle velocities of 7.8 km s−1 beneath the southern rift confirm the continuation of the axial low-velocity zone imaged in previous seismic experiments. This is interpreted as the effect of small degrees of partial melt caused by elevated mantle temperatures. Gravity modelling suggests a contribution to the Bouguer anomaly from below the Moho, invoking the need for deep density contrasts. The regional gravity gradient necessary to model the Bouguer anomaly is used as supporting evidence for mantle-plume type circulation beneath the uplifted East African Plateau to the west of the Kenya Rift.

Seismic structure across the Caledonian Deformation Front along MONA LISA profile 1 in the southeastern North Sea

Abstract Seismic data from the MONA LISA (Marine and Onshore North Sea Acquisition for Lithospheric Seismic Analysis) project in the southeastern North Sea image the Caledonian Deformation Front (CDF), which is the collisional suture between Baltica to the north and east and Avalonia to the south and west. The N S-trending MONA LISA normal-incidence reflection profile 1 was recorded to 26 s twt. Coincident wide-angle data were acquired on nine ocean bottom hydrophones and several onshore mobile seismographs along and off the profile. The model of compressional seismic velocity shows three different crustal types: (a) a typical three-layered shield-type crust below the Ringkobing Fyn High to the north: (b) a highly complex transitional crust in the central part; and (c) a two-layered crust of Caledonian origin to the south. Sharp and strong normal-incidence and wide-angle reflections from Moho were recorded south of the Caledonian Deformation Front in contrast to less distinct reflections further north. S-dipping crustal reflections from 4 to 11 s twt over ∼70 km horizontal distance terminate at Moho and coincide with a change in the seismic velocity structure. This indicates northward obduction of Avalonian crust. Non-migrated normal-incidence seismic sections show crossing weak N-dipping and stronger S-dipping reflections to 20 s twt from the uppermost mantle. We propose a tectonic model where the closure of the Tornquist Sea took place along a N-dipping subduction zone which was later overprinted by a late-or post-Caledonian S-dipping shear zone. Sub-Moho velocities are 7.8–7.9 km/s under 34–35-km-thick Baltica crust and 8.1–8.3 km/s under 25–26-km-thick Caledonian crust. The sub-horizontal Moho across the Caledonian collision zone implies late- or post-Caledonian re-equilibration of the seismological Moho. We interpret the low-velocity upper mantle (7.8–8.1 km/s) to the north as former Baltica lower crust in eclogite facies after pressure-induced metamorphism as a result of lithospheric flexure during the Caledonian orogeny. These rocks today appear as upper mantle that was uplifted to their present position during the Middle Devonian collapse of the North German-Polish Caledonides.

MONA LISA : Deep seismic investigations of the lithosphere in the southeastern North Sea

The MONA LISA collaborative project has collected 1112 km of seismic normal-incidence reflection data (recorded to 26 s) and wide-angle data from 26 onshore and 2 offshore locations along 4 profile ...

Crustal structure of the northern Main Ethiopian Rift from the EAGLE controlled-source survey; a snapshot of incipient lithospheric break-up

Abstract The Ethiopia Afar Geoscientific Lithospheric Experiment (EAGLE) was undertaken to provide a snapshot of lithospheric break-up above a mantle upwelling at the transition between continental and oceanic rifting. The focus of the project was the northern Main Ethiopian Rift (NMER) cutting across the uplifted Ethiopian plateau comprising the Eocene-Oligocene Afar flood basalt province. A major component of EAGLE was a controlled-source seismic survey involving one rift-axial and one cross-rift c. 400 km profile, and a c. 100 km diameter 2D array to provide a 3D subsurface image beneath the profiles’ intersection. The resulting seismic data are interpreted in terms of a crustal and sub-Moho P-wave seismic velocity model. We identify four main results: (1) the velocity within the mid- and upper crust varies from 6.1 km s−1 beneath the rift flanks to 6.6 km s−1 beneath overlying Quaternary axial magmatic segments, interpreted in terms of the presence of cooled gabbroic bodies arranged en echelon along the axis of the rift; (2) the existence of a high-velocity body (Vp 7.4 km s−1) in the lower crust beneath the northwestern rift flank, interpreted in terms of about 15 km-thick, mafic under-plated/intruded layer at the base of the crust (we suggest this was emplaced during the eruption of Oligocene flood basalts and modified by more recent mafic melt during rifting); (3) the variation in crustal thickness along the NMER axis from c. 40 km in the SW to c. 26 km in the NE beneath Afar. This variation is interpreted in terms of the transition from near-continental rifting in the south to a crust in the north that could be almost entirely composed of mantle-derived mafic melt; and (4) the presence of a possibly continuous mantle reflector at a depth of about 15–25 km below the base of the crust beneath both linear profiles. We suggest this results from a compositional or structural boundary, its depth apparently correlated with the amount of extension.

Deep Europe today: Geophysical synthesis of the upper mantle structure and lithospheric processes over 3.5 Ga

abstract We present a summary of geophysical models of the subcrustal lithosphere of Europe. This includes the results from seismic (reflection and refraction profiles, P- and S-wave tomography, mantle anisotropy), gravity, thermal, electromagnetic, elastic and petro-logical studies of the lithospheric mantle. We discuss major tectonic processes as reflected in the lithospheric structure of Europe, from Precambrian terrane accretion and subduction to Phanerozoic rifting, volcanism, subduction and continent-continent collision. The differences in the lithospheric structure of Precambrian and Phanerozoic Europe, as illustrated by a comparative analysis of different geophysical data, are shown to have both a compositional and a thermal origin. We propose an integrated model of physical properties of the European subcrustal lithosphere, with emphasis on the depth intervals around 150 and 250 km. At these depths, seismic velocity models, constrained by body- and surface-wave continent-scale tomography, are compared with mantle temperatures and mantle gravity anomalies. This comparison provides a framework for discussion of the physical or chemical origin of the major lithospheric anomalies and their relation to large-scale tectonic processes, which have formed the present lithosphere of Europe.

Crustal-scale pop-up structure in cratonic lithosphere: DOBRE deep seismic reflection study of the Donbas fold belt, Ukraine

The DOBRE project investigated the interplay of geologic and geodynamic processes that controlled the evolution of the Donbas fold belt, Ukraine, as an example of an inverted intracratonic rift basin. A deep seismic reflection profile provides an excellent image of the structure of the Donbas fold belt, which is the uplifted and compressionally deformed part of the late Paleozoic Pripyat-Dniepr-Donets basin. Both the effects of rifting and those of later structural inversion are recognized in the seismic and geologic data. The interpretation of the reflection data shows that the inversion of the Donbas fold belt occurred at the crustal scale as a mega-pop-up, which involved a major detachment fault through the entire crust and an associated back thrust. The DOBREflection image provides a simple concept of intracratortic basin inversion, the crustal pop-up being uplifted and internally deformed. The association of such a structure with inverted intracratonic basins such as the Donbas fold belt implies brittle deformation of relatively cold crust.

Seismic reflectivity and magmatic underplating beneath the Kenya Rift

The lower crust around the Kenya Rift is generally reflective in wide-angle seismic sections. Remarkably, high amplitude reflections of low frequency originate from underneath the rift, whereas weaker reflections of high frequency prevail from outside the rift. This indicates thicker layering and larger reflection coefficients in the lower crust beneath the rift than outside it. Petrologically, magmatic intrusions are compatible with the thick layering beneath the rift axis, and the associated large reflection coefficients are indicative of their cumulate layering and fractionation. Hence, the observed thinning of the crust below the rift may be substantially less than the real mechanical thinning due to the addition of intrusive or underplated material.

Proterozoic sutures and terranes in the southeastern Baltic Shield interpreted from BABEL deep seismic data

Abstract A hitherto unknown terrane and its bounding sutures have been revealed by a combined study of normal-incidence and wide-angle seismic data along the BABEL profile in the Baltic Sea. This Intermediate Terrane is situated between a Northern Terrane of Svecofennian age and a Southwestern Terrane of Gothian age. It is delimited upwards by two low-angle and oppositely dipping sutures and occupies mainly middle and lower crustal levels with a width of ∼ 300 km at Moho level. The ∼ 1.86 Ga suture against the Northern Terrane is imaged by a prominent almost continuous NE-dipping crustal reflection from 3.5 to 14 s twt over 175 km. Where it downlaps on the Moho, sub-Moho velocities change from 8.2 to 7.8 km/s (±0.2) over less than 25 km. A relatively strong, NE-dipping normal-incidence and wide-angle reflection at 19–23 s twt indicates that the suture extends into the upper mantle. The pervasive NE-dipping reflection fabric of the Intermediate Terrane is interpreted as shear zones that developed during collision and possibly were reactivated by later events. High Poissons ratios suggest a mafic composition or high fluid content. The ∼ 1.86 Ga collision was probably succeeded by continental break-up and removal of an unknown continent, except for the Intermediate Terrane. Subsequent formation of an east-dipping subduction zone further to the west led to the emplacement of 1.81-1.77-Ga-old granitoids in the southern part of the Transscandinavian Igneous Belt. The ∼ 1.65-1.60 Ga suture against the Southwestern Terrane is defined by a semi-continuous band of strong SW-dipping reflections between 3 and 8 s twt over 65 km, which are interpreted as a low-angle thrust zone along which Gothian crust overrode the Intermediate Terrane. The identification of three individual seismic terranes in the southeastern part of the Baltic Shield provides new evidence for Palaeoproterozoic plate tectonic processes.

Crustal structure on the northeastern flank of the Kenya rift

Abstract The KRISP flank line E converges with the Kenya rift at an angle of about 45° and is approximately parallel to the older Anza graben to the north. The depth to the basement is almost zero along the entire onshore part of the profile with higher velocities at the southeastern end indicative of extensive Precambrian gabbroic intrusions in the upper crust. The Moho shallows steadily from about 35 km at the southeastern end of the profile to about 24 km under Lake Turkana. Even though the Moho rises fairly steadily, there is significant heterogeneity in the crust above it. This shows that the extension is unevenly distributed between the upper and the lower crust. The Moho is laminated and variably reflective. Compared to the KRISP cross-line D further south, the crust is unexpectedly thin and shows extension increasing in a northerly direction. This extension is probably not associated with the Anza and Kenya rifting but with the profiles position on the slope of the Kenya dome. The indications are that there is a relatively abrupt change to a 20-km Moho depth near the Lake Turkana Central shotpoint. This change to a mid-rift crustal thickness occurs not at the postulated margin at the southeastern shore of Lake Turkana but at least 50 km further to the northwest. We suggest that the position of this margin may need to be redefined. The P n velocity is quite high at 8.1 km/s. This may indicate either a cold upper mantle or anisotropy. An upper-mantle reflector has been identified between 15 and 20 km below the Moho. It dips gently away from the rift.