H. U. Neue

Influence of organic matter incorporation on the methane emission from a wetland rice field.

Methane (CH4) emission from Philippine rice paddies was monitored with a closed chamber technique during the 1992 dry and wet season. CH4 emissions were significantly higher in the dry season. Application of green manure stimulated CH4 emissions. In plots that received more than 11 t ha−1 of fresh green manure, CH4 emission was highest during the first half of the growing season. Significant amounts of CH4 may evolve during or immediately after transplanting, if the organic amendments are incorporated 1 to 3 weeks before transplanting. Laboratory incubations of soil cores show that CH4 production is highest near the soil surface. CH4 production in green manure treated fields is higher than in urea-fertilized fields, but toward the end of the season this difference is less pronounced. Around panicle initiation, the fraction of CH4 produced, which was emitted to the atmosphere, is lower than at tillering or ripening. The impact of organic amendments on CH4 emissions at different locations of the world can be described by a dose response curve, if CH4 emission from organically amended plots is expressed relative to CH4 emission from mineral fertilized plots of the same location and season. Various organic amendments (e.g., straw, fermented residues) have a similar effect on CH4 emissions after correction for differences in easily decomposable carbon content.

Characterization of Methane Emissions from Rice Fields in Asia. III. Mitigation Options and Future Research Needs

Methane (CH4) emissions from rice fields were determined using automated measurement systems in China, India, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines. Mitigation options were assessed separately for different baseline practices of irrigated rice, rainfed, and deepwater rice. Irrigated rice is the largest source of CH4 and also offers the most options to modify crop management for reducing these emissions. Optimizing irrigation patterns by additional drainage periods in the field or an early timing of midseason drainage accounted for 7–80% of CH4 emissions of the respective baseline practice. In baseline practices with high organic amendments, use of compost (58–63%), biogas residues (10–16%), and direct wet seeding (16–22%) should be considered mitigation options. In baseline practices using prilled urea as sole N source, use of ammonium sulfate could reduce CH4 emission by 10–67%. In all rice ecosystems, CH4 emissions can be reduced by fallow incorporation (11%) and mulching (11%) of rice straw as well as addition of phosphogypsum (9–73%). However, in rainfed and deepwater rice, mitigation options are very limited in both number and potential gains. The assessment of these crop management options includes their total factor productivity and possible adverse effects. Due to higher nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, changes in water regime are only recommended for rice systems with high baseline emissions of CH4. Key objectives of future research are identifying and characterizing high-emitting rice systems, developing site-specific technology packages, ascertaining synergies with productivity, and accounting for N2O emissions.

Methane emissions from wetland rice areas of Asia

Khalil and Rasmussen (1990) reviewed eleven global methane budgets published between 1978 through 1988. They found that methane emissions from rice paddies ranged from 18 to 280 Tg year−1 which correspond to between 10 and 70% of the total anthropogenic methane emissions. For this paper, we have reviewed and replicated three published techniques to estimate methane emissions from rice paddies. We present the results obtained and we propose to include soil characteristics to revise these estimates. Since 90% of rice production occurs in Asia, we have only focused our study on rice in Asia. The first technique we replicated, uses the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)s country statistics and crop calendars to determine the land area under rice cultivation each month. Assuming a constant emission rate, Asian rice fields emit about 82 Tg methane year−1. The second technique we replicated, assumes that methane emissions represent a constant fraction of the net primary production and uses empirical relationships between net primary production and temperature and precipitation records. Asian rice fields then only produce 57 Tg methane year−1. The third technique we replicated, relates methane emissions to rice grain production. It involves the calculation of total organic matter added to rice paddy soils and assumes that a constant fraction is emitted as methane. This leads to an estimate of methane emissions from Asian rice fields of about 63 Tg year−1. We propose to use a classification of rice soils to categorize rice growing locations from potentially methane producing to non-methane producing areas. Using this distinction with any of the three methods we discussed, Asian rice fields emissions are reduced by about 25%.

A rapid chloroform-fumigation extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen in flooded rice soils

Abstract A chloroform-fumigation extraction method with fumigation at atmospheric pressure (CFAP, without vacuum) was developed for measuring microbial biomass C (CBIO) and N (NBIO) in water-saturated rice soils. The method was tested in a series of laboratory experiments and compared with the standard chloroform-fumigation extraction (CFE, with vacuum). For both methods, there was little interference from living rice roots or changing soil water content (0.44–0.55 kg kg–1 wet soil). A comparison of the two techniques showed a highly significant correlation for both CBIO and NBIO (P<0.001) suggesting that the simple and rapid CFAP is a reliable alternative to the CFE. It appeared, however, that a small and relatively constant fraction of well-protected microbial biomass may only be lysed during fumigation under vacuum. Determinations of microbial C and N were highly reproducible for both methods, but neither fumigation technique generated NBIO values which were positively correlated with CBIO. The range of observed microbial C:N ratios of 4–15 was unexpectedly wide for anaerobic soil conditions. Evidence that this was related to inconsistencies in the release, degradation, and extractability of NBIO rather than CBIO came from the observation that increasing the fumigation time from 4 h to 48 h significantly increased NBIO but not CBIO. The release pattern of CBIO indicated that the standard fumigation time of 24 h is applicable to water-saturated rice soils. To correct for the incomplete recovery of CBIO, we suggest applying the kC factor of 2.64, commonly used for aerobic soils (Vance et al. 1987), but caution is required when correcting NBIO data. Until differences in fumigation efficiencies among CFE and CFAP are confirmed for a wider range of rice soils, we suggest applying the same correction factor for both methods.

Factors and processes controlling methane emissions from rice fields

Understanding the major controlling factors of methane emissions from ricefields is critical for estimates of source strengths. This paper reports results on the relationship of different plant characteristics and methane fluxes in ricefields.Methane fluxes in ricefields show distinct diel and seasonal variations. Diel variations are mainly controlled by soil solution temperature and the partial pressure of methane. One or two distinct seasonal maxima are observed in irrigated ricefields. The first is governed by methane production from soil and added organic matter and a second at heading is plant derived. During ripening and maturity, root exudation, root porosity and root oxidation power may control methane emission rates. Rice plants play an important role in methane flux. The aerenchyma conduct methane from the bulk soil into the atmosphere. The amount of carbon utilized in methane formation varied among cultivars. A strong positive effect of rice root exudates on methane production imply that cultivar selections for lower methane emissions should not only be based on the gas transport capabilities but also on the quality and quantity of root exudates.Soils show a wide range of methane production potential but no simple correlation between any stable soil property and methane production is evident. Various cultural practices affect methane emissions. Defined aeration periods reduce methane emissions. Soil entrapped methane is released to the atmosphere as a result of soil disturbances. Mineral fertilizers influence methane production and sulfate containing fertilizer decrease methane production. The methane release per m2 from different rice ecosystems follow the order: deepwater rice>irrigated rice>rainfed rice. Abatement strategies may only be accepted if the methane source strength of ricefields is reliably discriminated and if mitigation technologies are in accordance with increased rice production and productivity.

Characterization of methane emissions from rice fields in Asia. II. Differences among irrigated, rainfed, and deepwater rice.

Methane (CH4) emission rates were recorded automatically using the closed chamber technique in major rice-growing areas of Southeast Asia. The three experimental sites covered different ecosystems of wetland rice--irrigated, rainfed, and deepwater rice--using only mineral fertilizers (for this comparison). In Jakenan (Indonesia), the local water regime in rainfed rice encompassed a gradual increase (wet season) and a gradual decrease (dry season) in floodwater levels. Emission rates accumulated to 52 and 91 kg CH4 ha−1 season−1 corresponding to approximately 40% of emissions from irrigated rice in each season. Distinct drainage periods within the season can drastically reduce CH4 emissions to less than 30 kg CH4 ha−1 season−1 as shown in Los Baños (Philippines). The reduction effect of this water regime as compared with irrigated rice varied from 20% to 80% from season to season. Methane fluxes from deepwater rice in Prachinburi (Thailand) were lower than from irrigated rice but accumulated to equally high seasonal values, i.e., about 99 kg CH4 ha−1 season−1, due to longer seasons and assured periods of flooding. Rice ecosystems with continuous flooding were characterized by anaerobic conditions in the soil. These conditions commonly found in irrigated and deepwater rice favored CH4 emissions. Temporary aeration of flooded rice soils, which is generic in rainfed rice, reduced emission rates due to low CH4 production and high CH4 oxidation. Based on these findings and the global distribution of rice area, irrigated rice accounts globally for 70–80% of CH4 from the global rice area. Rainfed rice (about 15%) and deepwater rice (about 10%) have much lower shares. In turn, irrigated rice represents the most promising target for mitigation strategies. Proper water management could reduce CH4 emission without affecting yields.

Impact of phosphorus supply on root exudation, aerenchyma formation and methane emission of rice plants

AbstractThis study evaluated the impact of P supply on rice plant development and the methane budget of rice fields by 2 different approaches: (1) root growth, exudation and aerenchyma formation were recorded in an experiment with hydroponic solution; (2) dissolved CH4 concentration and CH4 emission were investigated in a pot experiment. In both approaches, we used three different cultivars and three levels of P supply. In the experiment with solution culture (0.5 ppm, 5 ppm, and 10 ppm P), root exudation ranged between 0.5 to 36.7μmol C plant−1 h−1 and increased steadily with plant growth at given P level. Low P supply resulted in• depressed shoot growth but increased root growth in culture solution.• increments in the root/shoot ratio by factors of 1.4 to 1.9 at flowering stage.• enhanced the development of root aerenchyma, and• stimulation of root exudation per plant by factors of 1.3–1.8 as compared to medium P supply and by factors of 2.1–2.4 as compared to high P supply. However, root exudation did not differ among treatments when related to the dry weight of roots. Thus, high exudation rates were caused by larger root biomass and not by higher activity of the root tissue.The pot experiment was conducted with a P-deficient soil that was either left without amendment or fertilized by 25 and 50 mg P kg−1soil, respectively. Low P supply resulted in• higher CH4 concentrations in soil solution; i.e., at flowering stage the soil solution concentrations were 34–50 μM under P deficiency and 10–22 μM under ample P supply and• significant increases of CH4 emission rates during the later stages of plant growth. These findings reflect a chain of response mechanisms to P stress, that ultimately lead to higher methane emission rates.

Fluxes and pools of methane in wetland rice soils with varying organic inputs.

Measurements of methane emission rates and concentrations in the soil were made during four growing seasons at the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines, on plots receiving different levels of organic input. Fluxes were measured using the automated closed chambers system (total emission) and small chambers installed between plants (water surface flux). Concentrations of methane in the soil were measured by collecting soil cores including the gas phase (soil-entrapped methane) and by sampling soil solution in situ (dissolved methane). There was much variability between seasons, but total fluxes from plots receiving high organic inputs (16–24 g CH4 m−2) always exceeded those from the low input plots (3–9 g CH4 m−2). The fraction of the total emission emerging from the surface water (presumably dominated by ebullition) was greater during the first part of the season, and greater from the high organic input plots (35–62%) than from the low input plots (15–23%). Concentrations of dissolved and entrapped methane in the low organic input plots increased gradually throughout the season; in the high input plots there was an early-season peak which was also seen in emissions. On both treatments, periods of high methane concentrations in the soil coincided with high rates of water surface flux whereas low concentrations of methane were generally associated with low flux rates.

Characterization of methane emissions from rice fields in Asia. I. Comparison among field sites in five countries

The Interregional Research Program on Methane Emissions from Rice Fields established a network of eight measuring stations in five Asian countries. These stations covered different environments and encompassed varying practices in crop management. All stations were equipped with a closed chamber system designed for frequent sampling and long-term measurements of emission rates. Even under identical treatment--e.g., continuous flooding and no organic fertilizers--average emission rates varied from 15 to 200 kg CH4 ha−1 season−1. Low temperatures limited CH4 emissions in temperate and subtropical stations such as northern China and northern India. Differences observed under given climates, (e.g., within the tropics) indicated the importance of soil properties in regulating the CH4 emission potential. However, local variations in crop management superseded the impact of soil- and climate-related factors. This resulted in uniformly high emission rates of about 300 kg CH4 ha−1 season−1 for the irrigated rice stations in the Philippines (Maligaya) and China (Beijing and Hangzhou). The station in northern India (Delhi) was characterized by exceptionally low emission rates of less than 20 kg CH4 ha−1 season−1 under local practice. These findings also suggest opportunities for reducing CH4 emission through a deliberate modification of cultural practice for most irrigated rice fields.

Factors affecting methane emission from rice fields

Abstract Emission of CH 4 from ricefields is the result of anoxic bacterial methane production. Global estimates of annual CH 4 emission from ricefields is 100 Tg. CH 4 emission data from limited sites are tentative. It is essential that uncertainty in individual sources is reduced in order to develop feasible and effective mitigation options which do not negate gains in rice production and productivity. Field studies at the International Rice Research Institute show that soil and added organic matter are the sources for initial methane production. Addition of rice straw enhances methane production. Roots and root exudates of wetland rice plants appear to be the major carbon sources at ripening stage. The production and transport of CH 4 to the atmosphere depend on properties of the rice plant. Under the same spacing and fertilization, the traditional variety Dular emitted more CH 4 per day than did the new plant type IR65597. Upon flooding for land preparation anaerobic conditions result in significant amount of methane being formed. Drying the field at midtillering significantly reduced total CH 4 emissions. Large amounts of entrapped CH 4 escape to the atmosphere when floodwater recedes upon drying at harvest. Cultural practices may account for 20% of the overall seasonal CH 4 emissions.