H. Wesley Perkins

Perceiving the Community Norms of Alcohol Use among Students: Some Research Implications for Campus Alcohol Education Programming"

Data drawn from a comprehensive survey of alcohol use in a college student community (N = 1, 116) show most students holding a moderate personal attitude regarding alcohol use while misperceiving their peer environment as being much more liberal. Drinking behavior is significantly related to gender, type of living unit, personal attitudes toward drinking, and also the degree of consistency/discrepancy between the individuals own attitude and his or her perception of the campus norm regarding drinking. Students who saw the campus norm to be similar to their own attitude were found to drink more heavily, and in more public settings, than students with discrepant attitudes and perceptions. Implications of findings for alcohol abuse prevention programs on college campuses are discussed.

Problem Drinking among College Students: A Review of Recent Research.

Abstract Research examining collegiate problem drinking from 1975–1985 is reviewed. Eight topics are distinguished pertaining to the definition and correlates of problem drinking: consumption patterns; self-identification as a problem drinker; motivations; negative consequences; personality characteristics; family, peers, and environment; long-term consequences of problem alcohol use; and male-female differences in problem drinking. Reported prevalences of problem drinking range from a low of 6% to a high of 72%, with most studies suggesting that approximately 20–25% of students have drinking problems. This variability may be explained in large part by divergent conceptual and operational definitions of problem drinkers across studies. Problem drinkers are characterized relative to nonproblem drinkers as impulsive, prone to deviant behavior, less oriented towards academic success, more independence-seeking, and more likely to drink for escapist (rather than sociability) reasons. The influential role of co...

Engaging men as social justice allies in ending violence against women: Evidence for a social norms approach

Abstract The field of sexual assault prevention is shifting attention to educational interventions that address the role of men in ending violence against women. Recent studies document the often-misperceived norms men hold about other mens endorsement of rape-supportive attitudes and behaviors. The authors provide further evidence supporting the design of population-based social norms interventions to prevent sexual assault. Data from this study suggest that men underestimate the importance that most men and women place on consent and willingness of most men to intervene against sexual violence. In addition, mens personal adherence to only consensual activity and their willingness to act as womens allies are strongly influenced by their perceptions of other mens and womens norms. These findings support the proposition that accurate normative data, which counters the misperception of rape-supportive environments, can be a critical part of comprehensive campus efforts to catalyze and support mens development as womens social justice allies in preventing sexual violence against women.

Personality characteristics of children of alcoholics.

This study compared the personality characteristics of late adolescent and young adult children ofalcoholics (COAs) with those of their peers and examined the extent to which personality differencesare gender specific and are related to the gender of the alcoholic parent. Specifically, data derivedfrom an alcohol survey of young college students (N = 860) were used to examine familial alcoholismand personality characteristics, including impulsiveness, self-depreciation, lack of tension, indepen-dence/autonomy, need for social support, directiveness, sociability, and other-directedness. Al-though COA respondents were similar to their peers on most personality measures, they were morelikely to report greater self-depreciation. This difference in self-depreciation between COAs and theirpeers was greater for women than men. Women with an alcoholic father were significantly morelikely than women with an alcoholic mother to report greater self-depreciation. Male COAs ratedthemselves significantly higher on autonomy than did their male peers, but the gender of the alcoholicparent had little effect on this variable.Concern about the effect of an alcoholic parent on his or herchildren has been frequently expressed by clinicians and by oth-ers in recent research literature. In a comprehensive review ofthe literature on children of alcoholics (COAs), Russell, Hen-derson, and Blume (1985) concluded that such children are ata particularly high risk for alcoholism and other emotional andbehavioral problems, including difficult social adjustment andsubstance abuse. They also cited studies in which COAs werefound to possess distinctive personality characteristics, includ-ing lower self-esteem and a more external locus of control. How-ever, it has also been suggested that COAs are more resilientthan previous studies have indicated (Werner, 1986).Yet, findings are limited and conclusions based on previousresearch must be qualified. First, the majority of studies onCOAs have utilized research designs biased toward families orchildren who seek treatment or who come to the attention ofthe health and legal systems, thus neglecting other COAs whomay not have behavioral, emotional, or substance-abuse prob-lems (El-Guebaly & Offord, 1977). Second, the predominantfocus on negative aspects of the COA experience has been criti-cized by researchers who suggest that growing up in an alcoholicfamily may encourage adaptive behaviors as well (El-Guebaly& Offord, 1977; Russell et al., 1985). Third, few studies havecompared the experiences of male and female COAs or haveexamined differences relating to the gender of the alcoholic par-ent, although some findings have revealed a greater impact foralcoholic fathers or have suggested that parental alcoholismmay affect sons and daughters differently (Russell et al., 1985).This study addresses these theoretical and methodological is-An earlier version of this article was presented at the National Coun-cil on Alcoholism Forum, San Francisco, April 1986. The authors grate-fully acknowledge the financial assistance of the Christopher D. Smith-ers Foundation i n this research.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to AlanBerkowitz, Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, New York14456.sues by examining the following questions with respect to per-sonality characteristics: (a) Are there particular differences inthe personality characteristics of a nonclinical sample of self-identified COAs and their peers from nonalcoholic families? (b)Are differences in the personality characteristics of COAs andtheir peers gender specific? and (c) Is there a difference in theimpact of alcoholic fathers and alcoholic mothers on the person-alities of their children, and is there an interaction between thegender of the alcoholic parent and the childs gender that mayaffect personality development?Method

Recent Research on Gender Differences in Collegiate Alcohol Use

Abstract Gender differences in collegiate alcohol use are reviewed in the literature from 1975–1986 with respect to (1) overall differences in drinking motivations, consequences, and consumption patterns; (2) evidence for historical convergence (a lessening of gender differences over time); (3) developmentally related patterns of alcohol use in transition to and during the years of college; and (4) the relative impact of environmental influences on drinkng patterns. There is considerable agreement in the literature regarding overall gender differences: Men drink more often, in greater quantities, with more negative consequences, and are more likely to drink to get drunk. These differences may be the result of a somewhat misleading gender dichotomy, however, with most men and women sharing a large amount of overlap regarding consumption levels. Historical trends toward convergence of mens and womens drinking have occurred with respect to the percentage of students who drink and the frequency of consumpti...

Effectiveness of social norms media marketing in reducing drinking and driving: A statewide campaign

This research evaluated the efficacy of a high-intensity social norms media marketing campaign aimed at correcting normative misperceptions and reducing the prevalence of drinking and driving among 21-to-34-year-olds in Montana. A quasi-experimental design was used, such that regions of Montana were assigned to one of three experimental groups: social norms media marketing campaign, buffer, and control. Four random samples of Montanans between the ages of 21 and 34 were assessed at four time points over 18 months via phone surveys. Findings suggest that the social norms media campaign was successful at exposing the targeted population to social norms messages in the counties within the intervention region. Moreover, results demonstrate the campaign reduced normative misperceptions, increased use of designated drivers, and decreased drinking and driving among those young adults in counties within the intervention region. Social norms media marketing can be effective at changing drinking-related behaviors at the population level. This research provides a model for utilizing social norms media marketing to address other behaviors related to public health.

Declining Negative Consequences Related to Alcohol Misuse Among Students Exposed to a Social Norms Marketing Intervention on a College Campus

Objective: The authors examined whether alcohol-related negative consequences decreased among students exposed to an intervention. Participants: Beginning in 1999, approximately 2,500 randomly selected undergraduates from a 4-year US university annually participated in a Web-based survey over 6 years. Methods: The educational intervention used social norms initiatives. Main outcome measures included recall of intervention, estimated blood alcohol content (eBAC) when drinking, and 10 negative consequences from alcohol within the past year. Results: First-year students recalling exposure had lower odds of negative consequences (odds ratio [OR] = 0.78, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.64-0.95) and of having an eBAC higher than .08 (OR = 0.76, 95% CI = 0.62-0.92). Over the 6 study years, the odds among all participants of experiencing (a) none of 10 alcohol consequences nearly doubled (OR = 2.13, 95% CI = 1.82-2.49) and (b) multiple consequences decreased by more than half (OR = 0.43, 95% CI = 0.36-0.50). Conclusions: These findings have important implications for US colleges and universities engaged in the reduction of harm associated with alcohol misuse.

Using social norms to reduce bullying: A research intervention among adolescents in five middle schools

Bullying attitudes and behaviors and perceptions of peers were assessed in a case study experiment employing a social norms intervention in five diverse public middle schools in the State of New Jersey (Grades 6 to 8). Data were collected using an anonymous online survey (baseline n = 2,589; postintervention n = 3,024). In the baseline survey, students substantially misperceived peer norms regarding bullying perpetration and support for probullying attitudes. As predicted by social norms theory, they thought bullying perpetration, victimization, and probullying attitudes were far more frequent than was the case. Also as predicted, variation in perceptions of the peer norm for bullying was significantly associated with personal bullying perpetration and attitudes. Using print media posters as the primary communication strategy, an intervention displaying accurate norms from survey results was conducted at each of the five school sites. A pre-/postintervention comparison of results revealed significant reductions overall in perceptions of peer bullying and probullying attitudes while personal bullying of others and victimization were also reduced and support for reporting bullying to adults at school and in one’s family increased. The extent of reductions across school sites was associated with the prevalence and extent of recall of seeing poster messages reporting actual peer norms drawn from the initial survey data. Rates of change in bullying measures were highest (from around 17% to 35%) for the school with the highest message recall by students after a one-and-a-half-year intervention. Results suggest that a social norms intervention may be a promising strategy to help reduce bullying in secondary school populations.

Stress among Farm Women: Work and Family as Interacting Systems.

Stress was examined in a sample of dairy farm wives (N = 126) who completed a questionnaire measuring stress symptoms, husband support, farm and home task loads, and perceived role conflict between farm and home responsibilities. A path analysis was utilized to assess the relative contribution to stress of work-related and family-related variables. Role conflict and husband support significantly predicted stress, while the relationships of home and farm task loads to stress were insignificant. Husband support also functioned as a coping mechanism mediating the stressful effects of role conflict. The results indicate that the content of home and work roles per se may not be as important as interpersonal dynamics in rural farm families.

GENDER AND FAMILY EFFECTS ON THE “SECOND-SHIFT” DOMESTIC ACTIVITY OF COLLEGE-EDUCATED YOUNG ADULTS:

This study examines gender differences in the extent and type of household activity and sense of domestic obligation across familial stages within a sample of young college-educated adults (N = 1,151). When children are present, substantial gender differences appear in housework and perceived home obligations. Implications of the results are discussed in terms of gender socialization and preparation for parenting.