Hairui Su

Diamidine Compounds for Selective Inhibition of Protein Arginine Methyltransferase 1

Protein arginine methylation is a posttranslational modification critical for a variety of biological processes. Misregulation of protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs) has been linked to many pathological conditions. Most current PRMT inhibitors display limited specificity and selectivity, indiscriminately targeting many methyltransferase enzymes that use S-adenosyl-l-methionine as a cofactor. Here we report diamidine compounds for specific inhibition of PRMT1, the primary type I enzyme. Docking, molecular dynamics, and MM/PBSA analysis together with biochemical assays were conducted to understand the binding modes of these inhibitors and the molecular basis of selective inhibition for PRMT1. Our data suggest that 2,5-bis(4-amidinophenyl)furan (1, furamidine, DB75), one leading inhibitor, targets the enzyme active site and is primarily competitive with the substrate and noncompetitive toward the cofactor. Furthermore, cellular studies revealed that 1 is cell membrane permeable and effectively inhibits intracellular PRMT1 activity and blocks cell proliferation in leukemia cell lines with different genetic lesions.

Exploration of cyanine compounds as selective inhibitors of protein arginine methyltransferases: synthesis and biological evaluation.

Protein arginine methyltransferase 1 (PRMT1) is involved in many biological activities, such as gene transcription, signal transduction, and RNA processing. Overexpression of PRMT1 is related to cardiovascular diseases, kidney diseases, and cancers; therefore, selective PRMT1 inhibitors serve as chemical probes to investigate the biological function of PRMT1 and drug candidates for disease treatment. Our previous work found trimethine cyanine compounds that effectively inhibit PRMT1 activity. In our present study, we systematically investigated the structure–activity relationship of cyanine structures. A pentamethine compound, E-84 (compound 50), showed inhibition on PRMT1 at the micromolar level and 6- to 25-fold selectivity over CARM1, PRMT5, and PRMT8. The cellular activity suggests that compound 50 permeated the cellular membrane, inhibited cellular PRMT1 activity, and blocked leukemia cell proliferation. Additionally, our molecular docking study suggested compound 50 might act by occupying the cofactor binding site, which provided a roadmap to guide further optimization of this lead compound.

Cross-talk between PRMT1-mediated methylation and ubiquitylation on RBM15 controls RNA splicing

RBM15, an RNA binding protein, determines cell-fate specification of many tissues including blood. We demonstrate that RBM15 is methylated by protein arginine methyltransferase 1 (PRMT1) at residue R578, leading to its degradation via ubiquitylation by an E3 ligase (CNOT4). Overexpression of PRMT1 in acute megakaryocytic leukemia cell lines blocks megakaryocyte terminal differentiation by downregulation of RBM15 protein level. Restoring RBM15 protein level rescues megakaryocyte terminal differentiation blocked by PRMT1 overexpression. At the molecular level, RBM15 binds to pre-messenger RNA intronic regions of genes important for megakaryopoiesis such as GATA1, RUNX1, TAL1 and c-MPL. Furthermore, preferential binding of RBM15 to specific intronic regions recruits the splicing factor SF3B1 to the same sites for alternative splicing. Therefore, PRMT1 regulates alternative RNA splicing via reducing RBM15 protein concentration. Targeting PRMT1 may be a curative therapy to restore megakaryocyte differentiation for acute megakaryocytic leukemia. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.07938.001

The AS‐RBM15 lncRNA enhances RBM15 protein translation during megakaryocyte differentiation

Antisense RNAs regulate the transcription and translation of the corresponding sense genes. Here, we report that an antisense RNA, AS‐RBM15, is transcribed in the opposite direction within exon 1 of RBM15. RBM15 is a regulator of megakaryocyte (MK) differentiation and is also involved in a chromosome translocation t(1;22) in acute megakaryocytic leukemia. MK terminal differentiation is enhanced by up‐regulation of AS‐RBM15 expression and attenuated by AS‐RBM15 knockdown. At the molecular level, AS‐RBM15 enhances RBM15 protein translation in a CAP‐dependent manner. The region of the antisense AS‐RBM15 RNA, which overlaps with the 5′UTR of RBM15, is sufficient for the up‐regulation of RBM15 protein translation. In addition, we find that transcription of both RBM15 and AS‐RBM15 is activated by the transcription factor RUNX1 and repressed by RUNX1‐ETO, a leukemic fusion protein. Therefore, AS‐RBM15 is a regulator of megakaryocyte differentiation and may play a regulatory role in leukemogenesis.

Splicing factor SF3B1K700E mutant dysregulates erythroid differentiation via aberrant alternative splicing of transcription factor TAL1

More than 60% of myeloid dysplasia syndrome (MDS) contains mutations in genes encoding for splicing factors such as SF3B1, U2AF, SRSF2 and ZRSR2. Mutations in SF3B1 are associated with 80% cases of refractory anemia with ring sideroblast (RARS), a subtype of MDS. SF3B1K700E is the most frequently mutated site among mutations on SF3B1. Yet the molecular mechanisms on how mutations of splicing factors lead to defective erythropoiesis are not clear. SF3B1K700E mutant binds to an RNA binding protein, RBM15, stronger than the wild type SF3B1 protein in co-immunoprecipitation assays. In addition, K700E mutant alters the RNA splicing of transcription factors TAL1 and GATA1. Via alternative RNA splicing, a novel short TAL1 transcript variant (TAL1s) is generated. Enhanced interaction between SF3B1 and RBM15 promotes the production of full-length TAL1 (TAL1fl) mRNA, while reduction of RBM15 protein level via PRMT1-mediated degradation pathway changes TAL1s/TAL1fl ratio in favor of TAL1s. TAL1s contains the helix-loop-helix DNA binding domain but not the N terminal region upstream of the DNA binding domain. The TAL1s protein loses its interaction with ETO2, which represses early erythropoiesis. In this vein, overexpression of TAL1s stimulates the transcription of β-hemoglobin in human leukemia K562 cells and promotes erythroid differentiation of human cord blood CD34+ cells cultured in erythropoietin-containing medium. Therefore, mutations of SF3B1 may block erythropoiesis via dysregulation of alternative RNA splicing of transcription factor TAL1, and targeting PRMT1 may alleviate the anemic symptoms in MDS patients.

Split End Family RNA Binding Proteins: Novel Tumor Suppressors Coupling Transcriptional Regulation with RNA Processing

Split End (SPEN) family proteins have three members: SPEN, RBM15, and RBM15B. SPEN family proteins contain three conserved RNA recognition motifs on the N-terminal region and an SPOC domain on the C-terminal region. RBM15 is fused to MKL1 in chromosome translocation t (1;22), which causes childhood acute megakaryoblastic leukemia (AMKL). Haploinsufficiency of RBM15 in AMKL indicates that RBM15 is a tumor suppressor. Both SPEN and RBM15 are mutated in a variety of cancer types, implying that they are tumor suppressors. SPEN and RBM15are required for the development of multiple organs including hematopoiesis partly via regulating the NOTCH signaling pathway, as well as the WNT signaling pathway in species ranging from Drosophila to mammals. Besides transcriptional regulation, RBM15 regulates RNA export and RNA splicing. In this review, we summarized data in the literature on how the members in SPEN family regulate gene expression at transcription and RNA processing steps. The crosstalk between epigenetic regulation and RNA metabolism is increasingly appreciated in understanding tumorigenesis. Studying the SPEN family of RNA binding proteins will create new perspectives for cancer therapy.