Hanna Ayalon

Educational Reforms and Inequalities in Israel: The MMI Hypothesis Revisited

Israeli secondary school students sit for national matriculation examinations that result in their receiving either a plain or a university-qualifying diploma. During the 1990s, the Ministry of Education implemented policies that were designed to raise eligibility rates for the diploma. This article evaluates the consequences of these policies for gender, ethnic, and socioeconomic inequalities in the odds of obtaining the two forms of the diploma. The results show that the reforms reduced socioeconomic inequalities in the odds of obtaining the plain diploma but increased inequalities in the odds of obtaining the university-qualifying diploma. Overall, the results refute the prediction of Raftery and Houts (1993) hypothesis of maximally maintained inequality that inequalities are maintained as long as privileged groups have not reached saturation vis-à-vis an educational level. Rather, they are consistent with Lucass (2001) claim that the differentiation of a given educational credential can substitute qualitative inequalities for quantitative ones.

Women and Men Go to University: Mathematical Background and Gender Differences in Choice of Field in Higher Education.

Gender segregation in higher education is well documented. Female students major in mathematics, technology, and sciences less often than men, and they concentrate in humanities and social sciences. Using multinomial logit on the 6,139 applicants to Tel Aviv University in Israel in 1994, I examined the claim that one of the roots of gender segregation in higher education lies in course-taking patterns in high school. The main findings are as follows: Women are underrepresented among the applicants to the mathematics-related fields of study; mathematical background in high school is particularly effective in narrowing the gender gap in applying to selective and attractive, but not mathematically related, fields of study at the university; women rely on high qualifications more than men when applying to selective and male-dominated fields of study. Several explanations of the findings will be discussed.

Math as a Gatekeeper: Ethnic and Gender Inequality in Course Taking of the Sciences in Israel

Using multilevel analysis on a sample of Israeli academic-track twelfth graders in 1989, the article examines between-school variation in gender and ethnic inequality in course taking of two scientific subjects, physics and biology. The main findings are that (1) the sciences are taken less often by students of the underprivileged Jewish ethnic group, and this inequality is more acute in schools that use math as a filter, and (2) physics is taken more often by males, and biology by females. The gender typing of the sciences is particularly prominent in math-oriented schools. The social implications of the findings are discussed.

Gender inequality in leadership positions of teachers

By integrating individual and contextual approaches, the present study examines gender differences in appointment to leadership positions in schools in three different educational sectors in Israel. Based on a sample of 10,733 Israeli high school teachers in two Jewish educational sectors and one Arab educational sector, we performed a set of multinomial logistic regressions. The main findings indicate that gender has an independent influence on the probability of entering various leadership positions in schools, even after controlling for personal characteristics and teaching fields. However, the patterns and the extent of gender inequality differ between the three sectors. The findings are interpreted in accordance with the glass ceiling and the queuing model approaches. We conclude that gender inequality is context bound and should be analyzed from this point of view.

Monopolizing Knowledge? The Ethnic Composition and Curriculum of Israeli High Schools.

Using multinomial and simple logistic regressions, the study presented here examined the availability of 12 school subjects in Israeli academic high schools that are differentiated by their ethnic composition. It found that academic subjects that are classified as more prestigious are offered less often at the highest curricular level in schools that are dominated by students of the underprivileged Jewish ethnic group. Thus, curricular decisions that are based on the matching of subjects with the assumed capacities and interests of the students seem to end in the monopolization of highly valued knowledge by privileged social groups.

Diversification and Inequality in Higher Education: A Comparison of Israel and the United States.

This article explores how the structure of higher education in the United States and Israel mediates the relationship among race/ethnicity, social origins, and postsecondary outcomes. On the basis of differences in how the two systems of higher education have developed, the authors anticipated that inequality in college attendance will be greater in Israel, while inequality in the type of college or university one attends will be greater in the United States. They found that students in the United States are more likely to attend college than are their Israeli counterparts. Contrary to their expectations, however, inequality in the chances of attendance is similar across these nations, if not slightly greater in the United States. Inequality in the types of institutions that students attend appears greater in the United States, but the contours of ethnic inequality in college destinations are markedly different across these two contexts.

Students, Schools, and Enrollment in Science and Humanity Courses in Israeli Secondary Education.

This article examines the deteriorating status of the humanities and social sciences versus mathematics and the sciences in the curriculum of Israeli high schools. We examine this tendency by conducting a multi-level analysis of the effect of school and individual characteristics on inequality in curriculum specialization on a sample of academic-track 12th-graders in 1989. The main findings are (a) more able students, males, and members of the privileged Jewish ethnic group in Israel tend to specialize in mathematics and the sciences, and (b) students’ characteristics are the major determinant of course-taking in mathematics and the sciences, whereas school policy is central regarding the humanities and social sciences. The article discusses social implications of the findings.

Educational Opportunities and Occupational Aspirations: A Two-Dimensional Approach.

This article proposes that the study of early career formation has failed to notice that inequalities in educational opportunities may generate alternative patterns of occupational aspirations. In particular, standard scales of aspirations cannot identify the economically ambitious who aim at occupations that generate high income but require low education. This type of ambition is likely when schooling cannot function as an effective means of mobility. To examine this proposition, the authors constructed a scale that captures this dimension and used it, together with the standard scale, to study the occupational aspirations of high school students in Israel. The results show that the aspiration levels for the two dimensions are affected by individual (gender) and institutional (tracking) factors.

Educational standardization and gender differences in mathematics achievement: A comparative study.

We argue that between-country variations in the gender gap in mathematics are related to the level of educational system standardization. In countries with standardized educational systems both genders are exposed to similar knowledge and are motivated to invest in studying mathematics, which leads to similar achievements. We hypothesize that national examinations and between-teacher uniformity in covering major mathematics topics are associated with a smaller gender gap in a country. Based on Trends of International Mathematical and Science Study (TIMSS) 2003, we use multilevel regression models to compare the link of these two factors to the gender gap in 32 countries, controlling for various country characteristics. The use of national examinations and less between-teacher instructional variation prove major factors in reducing the advantage of boys over girls in mathematics scores and in the odds of excelling. Factors representing gender stratification, often analyzed in comparative gender-gap research in mathematics, are at most marginal in respect of the gap.

Mathematics and Sciences Course Taking Among Arab Students in Israel: A Case of Unexpected Gender Equality

Using multilevel analysis on a sample of academic-track 12th graders in 1989, this article compares gender inequality in course taking of mathematics and sciences in Arab and Jewish high schools. The findings show that gender inequality is almost nonexistent in Arab schools, whereas it is very prominent in Jewish, particularly secular, schools. The differences in gender inequality are explained by the differences in the curriculum. In contrast with Jewish high schools that offer a rich curriculum, Arab schools offer few advanced courses in humanities and social sciences. Consequently, male and female students who wish to take advanced courses have to choose mathematics and sciences. The findings point to a sociological paradox; the poor curriculum of Arab high schools enhances the chances of Arab female students to be exposed to highly valued knowledge. These findings shed an additional light on the beneficial effect that a restricted curriculum can have for members of disadvantaged groups.