Hans Bressers

Community Capacity for Implementing Clean Development Mechanism Projects Within Community Forests in Cameroon

There is a growing assumption that payments for environmental services including carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas emission reduction provide an opportunity for poverty reduction and the enhancement of sustainable development within integrated natural resource management approaches. Yet in experiential terms, community-based natural resource management implementation falls short of expectations in many cases. In this paper, we investigate the asymmetry between community capacity and the Land Use Land Use Change Forestry (LULUCF) provisions of the Clean Development Mechanism within community forests in Cameroon. We use relevant aspects of the Clean Development Mechanism criteria and notions of “community capacity” to elucidate determinants of community capacity needed for CDM implementation within community forests. The main requirements are for community capacity to handle issues of additionality, acceptability, externalities, certification, and community organisation. These community capacity requirements are further used to interpret empirically derived insights on two community forestry cases in Cameroon. While local variations were observed for capacity requirements in each case, community capacity was generally found to be insufficient for meaningful uptake and implementation of Clean Development Mechanism projects. Implications for understanding factors that could inhibit or enhance community capacity for project development are discussed. We also include recommendations for the wider Clean Development Mechanism/Kyoto capacity building framework.

Policy Networks in Dutch Water Policy

In addition to the well-known programme for flood protection, Dutch water policy consists of two main subsectors; water supply and ground water protection, and surface water quality management. In this contribution special attention is paid to the characterisation of these subsectors using two network variables; mutual commitment and interrelatedness. The dynamics of change of these features and their relation with policy opportunities are examined. The water supply sector was amalgated into larger companies and developed more cooperation as a result of the pressure of the environmental challenge, which made it impossible to continue pumping and billing. Though the sector in a sense became more integrated, this was accompanied by an increased need to do business with other interests, such as agriculture. The surface water quality subsector also moved from a very integrated community into a more open structure. This openness is, however, to a large extent organised by the sector itself, by incorporating other interests in their councils and committees. Both subsectors increasingly adopt a consensual approach in dealing with these other interests.

Networks as models of analysis: Water policy in comparative perspective

Network models for analysing public policy have become widely used in recent years. This symposium assesses the network idea by applying a common perspective on network analysis to the constellations involved in water policy formation and implementation in several countries and the European Union. Water policy is an important and increasingly salient subject, and the networks involved in the sector have altered recently in important fashions. Thus the topic is suitable for investigations of network dynamics and their impacts. In this article, some of the most significant lines of contribution to network research are reviewed, and the network concept is clarified. Preliminary assessments of the utility and limitations of network analysis are presented. In particular, it is argued that the network emphasis offers some analytical advantages in understanding policy processes. Network characteristics and some dimensions of network variability are sketched. Particular attention is paid to the dimension for whic...

Economic Instruments for Environmental Protection: Can We Trust the "Magic Carpet"?

Economic instruments appear at first to be a promising alternative to regulations as instruments of environmental policy. Because they put market forces to work for the goal of a sustainable society, they are often portrayed as achieving goals at much lower costs. In this sense, economic instruments appear as a type of “magic carpet” for the trip to sustainable development. The article presents a “pre-flight check” of the carpet’s viability, and finds several potential design problems. Economic instruments in practice often don’t comply with the underlying economic theory. Further, the dominating notion of cost-effectiveness is only one of many criteria which policy-makers must taken into account in the real world. It is not a question of “good science” vs. “bad politics,” but a recognition that politics has a rationality of its own. The lessons learned from analyses of policy-making and implementation deserve, therefore, equal attention with the presupposed behavioral reactions of key target groups. Issues to be taken into account include the interests of the actors involved, and the institutional contexts of both policy-making and policy-learning. Such factors are discussed by using them to shed light on observed deviations in instrument design.

Environmental voluntary agreements in the Dutch context

This paper describes and analyses the use of environmental voluntary agreements, or covenants, in Dutch environmental policy. Covenants have become a widely used policy instrument in the Netherlands. This trend reinforces the strong neo-corporatist traits of Dutch society with its tendency towards bargaining and cooperation with interest groups. Over the years an authoritarian and distant policy style with a negative attitude towards target groups has changed into a new approach designed to encourage self-regulation. Instead of simply imposing legislation, the Dutch government often concludes agreements with relevant sectors of industry regarding the implementation of environmental objectives. Through negotiations between sectors of industry, the Ministry of the Environment, and regional governments, agreements are sought concerning the contribution of specific industrial sectors to the goals of the National Environmental Policy Plan. These goals aim for 50–90 percent emission reductions for specified pollutants. Since 1989 many such agreements have been reached. In 2002/2003 we carried out a study on the effectiveness of the covenants, commissioned by the Dutch ministry of the Environment (VROM). The focus in the project was the identification of success and fail factors. Our central conclusion on the use and effects of the covenants is quite positive, although we have also identified several constraints. Most importantly, we found the implementation context highly relevant for covenant success. In this chapter we focus on this context in order to understand the workings of environmental voluntary agreements. We describe the background in which the covenants are used as well as the resultant effects. Furthermore we highlight some guidelines for future use.

Networks and Water Policy: Conclusions and Implications for Research

Network models for analysing public policy have become widely used in recent years. This symposium assesses the network idea by applying a common perspective on network analysis to the constellations involved in water policy formation and implementation in several countries and the European Union. Water policy is an important and increasingly salient subject, and the networks involved in the sector have altered recently in important fashions. Thus the topic is suitable for investigations of network dynamics and their impacts. In this article, some of the most significant lines of contribution to network research are reviewed, and the network concept is clarified. Preliminary assessments of the utility and limitations of network analysis are presented. In particular, it is argued that the network emphasis offers some analytical advantages in understanding policy processes. Network characteristics and some dimensions of network variability are sketched. Particular attention is paid to the dimension for which policy communities and issue networks constitute polar cases. A rationale for the comparative analysis of water policy networks across different settings is presented.

New Market Designs and their Effect on Economic Performance in European Union's Natural Gas Markets

The European gas market reform triggered new market designs which aimed to achieve competitive natural gas prices, efficiency gains, and security of gas supply. The paper analyses to what extent the effects of regulation-for-competition in the field of gas transport and related commodity measures on economic performance in the form of natural gas prices, network tariffs, efficiency gains, and investments in gas infrastructure can be empirically studied in a European wide comparative analysis. We demonstrate that conceptual and data constraints hinder the verification of the impact of regulation-for-competition (regulatory instruments to increase competition in the gas market) on those performance indicators. Natural gas prices remain oil-indexed and new investment projects are in practice exempted from competition measures. Assuming that a positive impact is a matter of fact is thus premature. A hold-up problem (where industry is reluctant to invest due to regulatory uncertainty and a lack of incentives) is difficult to quantify empirically. However, the industrys strong opposition to ownership unbundling coupled with the popularity of exemptions from third party access while still allowing long-term contracts does indicate that the general argument in favour of a hold-up problem has empirical relevance.

Negotiation-based Policy Instruments and Performance: Dutch Covenants and Environmental Policy Outcomes

Numerous governments have adopted innovative policy instruments to deal with important environmental policy challenges and negotiated instruments offer the potential to improve performance beyond what regulation alone can accomplish. Dutch covenants, which represent negotiated agreements with sectors of industry as targets of behavioral change, provide useful evidence of the determinants of success. For improving environmental performance, certain features of the policy setting explain much of the variance in ambitions and outcomes: attitudes of decision makers in the affected businesses, attention to cost minimization, and possibly the degree of ambition built into the agreement. Modeling to explain the extent of ambition and compliance offer further insights. While some Dutch lessons may be restricted to more corporatist policy settings, others may help improve the effectiveness of negotiated agreements in many national settings.

Environmental negotiated agreements in the Netherlands

Governance for sustainable development requires new approaches to governance that go beyond the government versus market debate. Negotiated agreements and other new policy instruments have become quite popular in environmental governance, although not without debate. Based on the official evaluation of the Dutch system of environmental negotiated agreements, two central questions are answered. What is the degree of success (criteria for effectiveness, efficiency and positive side effects for learning and flexibility) of the use of negotiated environmental agreements in the Netherlands, and to what background factors is the degree of success related? What role is played by follow-up implementation after the agreements are signed and what is the interaction with other instruments? The assessment of the negotiated agreement as an instrument of environmental governance is generally positive.

How social learning influences further collaboration: experiences from an international collaborative water project

Social learning in collaborative settings can play an important role in reducing water management problems. In this paper we analyze the nature and effects of these learning processes in an international collaborative setting. We assert that social interactions contribute to substantive and relational learning, which involves changes in the motivations, cognitions and resources of individual actors. In addition, interactions may contribute to social learning, which is the case when actors develop collective outcomes on which further collaboration can be based. We use these theoretical insights to examine a water project in which Dutch and Romanian actors collaborate. Their interactions changed their individual motivations, cognitions, and resources and led to collective outcomes. Some of the learning processes were constructive, others were not. Because the unconstructive learning by external actors was decisive, the collaboration did not establish a basis for further collaboration. The case study demonstrates that a single project can include multiple and diverse social learning processes, which may have a positive or negative effect on further collaboration. Whose learning has most impact closely relates to how resources are distributed across actors, and hence the context of a learning process. Thus, whether learning forms a basis for further collaboration depends not only on ‘how much’ actors learn but in particular on ‘who learns what.’