Hans H. De Iongh

The global decline of cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and what it means for conservation

Significance Here, we compile and present the most comprehensive data available on cheetah distribution and status. Our analysis shows dramatic declines of cheetah across its distributional range. Most cheetah occur outside protected areas, where they are exposed to multiple threats, but there is little information on population status. Simulation modeling shows that, where cheetah population growth rates are suppressed outside protected areas, extinction risk increases markedly. This result can be generalized to other “protection-reliant” species, and a decision tree is provided to improve their extinction risk estimation. Ultimately, the persistence of protection-reliant species depends on their survival outside and inside protected areas and requires a holistic approach to conservation that engages rather than alienates local communities. Establishing and maintaining protected areas (PAs) are key tools for biodiversity conservation. However, this approach is insufficient for many species, particularly those that are wide-ranging and sparse. The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus exemplifies such a species and faces extreme challenges to its survival. Here, we show that the global population is estimated at ∼7,100 individuals and confined to 9% of its historical distributional range. However, the majority of current range (77%) occurs outside of PAs, where the species faces multiple threats. Scenario modeling shows that, where growth rates are suppressed outside PAs, extinction rates increase rapidly as the proportion of population protected declines. Sensitivity analysis shows that growth rates within PAs have to be high if they are to compensate for declines outside. Susceptibility of cheetah to rapid decline is evidenced by recent rapid contraction in range, supporting an uplisting of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List threat assessment to endangered. Our results are applicable to other protection-reliant species, which may be subject to systematic underestimation of threat when there is insufficient information outside PAs. Ultimately, conserving many of these species necessitates a paradigm shift in conservation toward a holistic approach that incentivizes protection and promotes sustainable human–wildlife coexistence across large multiple-use landscapes.

Adaptability of large carnivores to changing anthropogenic food sources: diet change of spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) during Christian fasting period in northern Ethiopia

Adaptability of large carnivores to changing anthropogenic food sources: diet change of spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) during Christian fasting period in northern Ethiopia Gidey Yirga*, HansH. De Iongh, Herwig Leirs, KindeyaGebrihiwot, Jozef Deckers andHansBauer Department of Biology, Mekelle University, P.O. Box 3072, Mekelle, Ethiopia; Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9518, Leiden, TheNetherlands; Evolutionary EcologyGroup, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerpen, Belgium; Department of Agro-Ecology, Aarhus University, Forsogsvej 1, 4200 Slagelse, Denmark; Department of LandResourceManagement and Environmental Protection, Mekelle University, P.O. Box 231,Mekelle, Ethiopia; and Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Catholic University of Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200E, B-3001Heverlee, Belgium

Research needs for lion conservation in West and Central Africa

The lion has historically probably been widespread at low densities in West and Central Africa, nowadays they are largely restricted to small isolated populations inside protected areas. The total number is probably between 1200 and 2700, the best possible guesstimate would be 1700. Mankind is the main cause for the suspected decline of lion populations, both inside and outside protected areas. Very little research has been done on West and Central African lions a few examples are summarized here. The international community is slowly becoming aware of threats to lions in the region and some initiatives for lion conservation have started.

Assessment and mitigation of human-lion conflict in West and Central Africa

Abstract The lion (Panthera leo) is most threatened in West and Central Africa; livestock encroachment and indiscriminate killing of lions are the main threats. Human-lion conflict mitigation is therefore key to persistence. Several experiments were carried out in the region to assess and mitigate human-lion conflict. In Pendjari National Park in Benin, enclosures of clay instead of the usual thorny branches reduced depredation figures by half. Around the Niger side of ‘W’ National Park, depredation was estimated at US

Pan-African Genetic Structure in the African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer): Investigating Intraspecific Divergence

138 per household per year and occurred mostly while grazing; people identified improved herding as the most appropriate measure. A livestock corridor through a chain of protected areas has helped reduce conflict in Benoue National Park, Cameroon. Close monitoring and enclosure improvements reduced depredation from 9 to 0 attacks in enclosures and from 60 to 18 on the pastures of six villages around Waza National Park, Cameroon. Cases in Chad and Guinea identified yet other mitigation measures, including the use of dogs, sensitisation over rural radio and using relevant Sourats from the Koran; data on effectiveness are lacking, however. These projects illustrate a varied suite of mitigation options and demonstrate that mitigation can be effective if the method is judiciously chosen and adapted to local circumstances.

Livestock depredation and mitigation methods practised by resident and nomadic pastoralists around Waza National Park, Cameroon

The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) exhibits extreme morphological variability, which has led to controversies about the validity and taxonomic status of the various recognized subspecies. The present study aims to clarify these by inferring the pan-African spatial distribution of genetic diversity, using a comprehensive set of mitochondrial D-loop sequences from across the entire range of the species. All analyses converged on the existence of two distinct lineages, corresponding to a group encompassing West and Central African populations and a group encompassing East and Southern African populations. The former is currently assigned to two to three subspecies (S. c. nanus, S. c. brachyceros, S. c. aequinoctialis) and the latter to a separate subspecies (S. c. caffer). Forty-two per cent of the total amount of genetic diversity is explained by the between-lineage component, with one to seventeen female migrants per generation inferred as consistent with the isolation-with-migration model. The two lineages diverged between 145 000 to 449 000 years ago, with strong indications for a population expansion in both lineages, as revealed by coalescent-based analyses, summary statistics and a star-like topology of the haplotype network for the S. c. caffer lineage. A Bayesian analysis identified the most probable historical migration routes, with the Cape buffalo undertaking successive colonization events from Eastern toward Southern Africa. Furthermore, our analyses indicate that, in the West-Central African lineage, the forest ecophenotype may be a derived form of the savanna ecophenotype and not vice versa, as has previously been proposed. The African buffalo most likely expanded and diverged in the late to middle Pleistocene from an ancestral population located around the current-day Central African Republic, adapting morphologically to colonize new habitats, hence developing the variety of ecophenotypes observed today.

Human–carnivore conflict around Pendjari Biosphere Reserve, northern Benin

Conflict between humans and lions Panthera leo is a key factor driving population declines of lions in Africa, especially in communal lands and on the edges of small protected areas. We assessed this conflict in Waza National Park, Cameroon, in 2008 through an interview survey. A total of 207 resident and 174 nomadic pastoralists were interviewed. Results indicated high levels of livestock depredation around the Park, with attacks occurring most often at night. Lions were economically a substantial threat accounting for total losses of EUR 100,000 per annum. Per household, resident pastoralists lost one cow and nomadic pastoralists two cows per annum, equating to c. EUR 260 and 520, respectively. To mitigate these losses resident pastoralists used enclosures for nocturnal protection of their livestock more than nomadic pastoralists, who tended to herd livestock more during pasture. Improved mitigation methods pertaining to herding practice, the use of enclosures and the presence of dogs resulted in a reduction of 25% livestock depredation and 50% cattle depredation. These methods could be further improved, however, education and awareness about the ranging behaviour of lions during different seasons and periods of the day is important for all pastoralists. Additionally, park management needs to be improved through effective law enforcement.

Autosomal and mtDNA Markers Affirm the Distinctiveness of Lions in West and Central Africa

Close proximity between humans and large predators results in high levels of conflict. We investigated the extent of, and factors leading to, this conflict through focal group and individual interviews in all villages around Pendjari Biosphere Reserve, northern Benin. Livestock losses from 2000 to 2007 (n = 752) were reported to be mainly caused by spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta (53.6%), baboon Papio anubis (24.8%), and lion Panthera leo (18.0%). These predators mainly predated sheep and goats (52.1%) and pigs (42.3%), with lions being the main predators of cattle (78.9%). Lion and hyaena diets were more diverse than that of baboons, which killed only small stock. The level of conflict increased during 2000–2007. Predation rate differs between predator species and is significantly influenced by month, rainfall of the month before the predation event, and length of the dry period in a year. The geographical position of the village, the distance of the village to the Park and the number of herbivores legally killed every hunting season also influenced predation intensity. Our findings suggest that improvement of husbandry techniques and education will reduce conflicts and contribute to improved conservation of these threatened predators.

Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) concentrate around urban waste dumps across Tigray, northern Ethiopia

The evolutionary history of a species is key for understanding the taxonomy and for the design of effective management strategies for species conservation. The knowledge about the phylogenetic position of the lion (Panthera leo) in West/Central Africa is largely based on mitochondrial markers. Previous studies using mtDNA only have shown this region to hold a distinct evolutionary lineage. In addition, anthropogenic factors have led to a strong decline in West/Central African lion numbers, thus, the conservation value of these populations is particularly high. Here, we investigate whether autosomal markers are concordant with previously described phylogeographic patterns, and confirm the unique position of the West/Central African lion. Analysis of 20 microsatellites and 1,454 bp of the mitochondrial DNA in 16 lion populations representing the entire geographic range of the species found congruence in both types of markers, identifying four clusters: 1) West/Central Africa, 2) East Africa, 3) Southern Africa and 4) India. This is not in line with the current taxonomy, as defined by the IUCN, which only recognizes an African and an Asiatic subspecies. There are no indications that genetic diversity in West/Central Africa lions is lower than in either East or Southern Africa, however, given this genetic distinction and the recent declines of lion numbers in this region, we strongly recommend prioritization of conservation projects in West/Central Africa. As the current taxonomic nomenclature does not reflect the evolutionary history of the lion, we suggest that a taxonomic revision of the lion is warranted.

Social Structure of Lions (Panthera leo) Is Affected by Management in Pendjari Biosphere Reserve, Benin

Abstract Context. The spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) lives in remarkably close proximity to humans in the degraded and prey-depleted landscapes in Tigray in northern Ethiopia, predominantly feeding on human organic waste. Aims. We sought to provide an estimate of spotted hyena abundance at garbage dumps and open agricultural areas across Tigray. Methods. We used 28 calling stations, including 12 at garbage dumps and 16 in open agricultural areas located in nine randomly selected urban districts across Tigray. We also used 65 randomly placed calling stations in three districts to establish spotted hyena abundance in Tigray. We also collected 610 scat samples during wet (n = 134) and dry season (n = 476) so as to identify diet. Key results. A total of 398 hyenas responded, including 356 hyenas at garbage dumps and 42 hyenas in open agricultural areas. The response at the garbage dumps was significantly higher. Approximately 2525 hyenas were estimated from 65 calling stations in three districts. There was no statistically significant difference in the diet of hyena between wet and dry seasons for any food item. Frequency occurrence of prey remains of donkeys and cattle were dominant, followed by human, goat and sheep, respectively. Key conclusions. We infer that a very large hyena population persists in unprotected areas of Tigray in northern Ethiopia, where they concentrate around urban waste dumps at night for scavengeable food resources, mainly originating from slaughterhouse waste of livestock. Implications. We suggest promotion of nature-based ecotourism of this exceptional coexistence of hyenas and humans in Ethiopia. We raise questions about local hyena social structure, movement, home-range, activity pattern and the implications for human–hyena coexistence.