Hans Vermeulen

The Second Generation in Europe

The study of integration processes has now reached a crucial stage in most Western European countries with the emergence of the second generation. The oldest children born to postwar immigrants on European soil have recently entered the job market, and we can now investigate their performance in both education and employment. This opens a unique opportunity to compare the situations of second generation migrants across countries. Ostensibly the children all have the same starting position, being born in the country of settlement. The intriguing question is how differences between immigrant groups, and also differences in national contexts, work to the benefit or detriment of the second generation. We discuss the first issue briefly, confining ourselves here to Turkish and Moroccan immigrants. In addressing the issue of national contexts, we focus primarily on policies and practices rather than on broad-reaching national integration models. We examine in detail the integration process itself in the context of vital institutional arrangements such as the education system and the mechanisms for transition to the labor market. How do such arrangements differ between countries, and how do they affect the outcomes for the second generation?

Immigration, education and the Turkish second generation in five European nations: A comparative study

Introduction Research on the second generation of postwar immigrants is a relatively new phenomenon. Only in the past decade has it become a central focus in the study of immigrant integration. The postwar second generation in Europe came of age at roughly the same time as the American one – and that was when researchers began exploring it more systematically. Examples of early studies in various European countries are Seifert (1992), Crul (1994), Tribalat (1995), Veenman (1996), and Lesthaeghe (1997). International comparative research on the second generation is still scant. In fact, only one such venture has been undertaken – the EFFNATIS project, conducted from 1998 to 2000 by researchers in eight European countries (EFFNATIS, 2001). Because EFFNATIS focused on different ethnic groups in different countries, no comparisons could be made of how the same ethnic group had fared in different settings. Cross-national comparisons were, therefore, awkward to make (Crul and Vermeulen 2003). The primary focus of this chapter is the comparison of integration processes in different countries. This is an aspect that has received far more attention in European than in American research. More specifically, we compare the integration of second-generation Turkish immigrants in five European countries: Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium, France, and Austria. This focus on immigrants from a single source country offers a complementary contrast to chapter 8 by Schnepf, as does a focus on educational attainment rather than achievement.

Introduction: The Role of Culture in Explanations of Social Mobility

During recent decades, the notion of culture has become more popular and more controversial at the same time. A booming new discipline, cultural studies, has put ‘culture’ at the centre of its attention. Economists and economic sociologists proclaim the ‘value of culture’ and argue that the time has come to ‘bring culture back in’ (Holton 1992: 179–214). Scholars of politics and international relations insist that ‘culture matters’ (Ellis and Thompson 1997) and warn that the cultural factor has been neglected. Notions of cultural diversity and productive culture have taken centre stage in management, and giving training to others in intercultural communication and cultural diversity has become a goldmine for enterprising individuals. So ‘culture’ has gained currency not only within the walls of academia, but also (or even more so) outside them. Culture is on everyone’s lips, as the anthropologist Sahlins phrased it some years ago.

From Political Mobilization to the Politics of Consciousness

Ethnic Groups and Boundaries by Fredrik Barth (1969) marked the transition to a new era of ethnic studies in the late sixties and early seventies. The Invention of Tradition by Hobsbawm and Ranger (1983) and Imagined Communities by Benedict Anderson (1983) played a similar role in a paradigm shift in the early eighties. While Barth’s approach focused on ‘the social organization of ethnic differences’, as the subtide of the book indicates, in the Hobsbawm and Ranger volume and Anderson’s book, topics like the creation and transformation of ethnic identities are addressed. The message of the second shift was that the main question to be asked should not focus on ‘what drives ethnic group action’, but on ‘the existence of the group itself (Young 1993: 23). And since the ethnic group was now conceived of as an imagined community, the study of ethnicity became above all a study of ethnic consciousness. Cohen’s formulation of his own position has in this respect a broader significance: The consequence change in the anthropology of the ethnicity had … to move from a position in which it took consciousness for granted or neglected it, to one in which it made consciousness problematic. We devised systems for constructing other people’s consciousness, without inquiring too closely into their veracity. This is my point of departure from the Barth of 1969. (1994: 60)

Etnisch-culturele diversiteit als 'feit' en 'norm'

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Migrations, integration, discriminations@@@The Future of the Second Generation: The Integration of Migrant Youth in Six European Countries@@@The New Second Generation@@@Ethnicities: Children of Immigrants in America@@@Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation

List of Tables and Figures Preface Acknowledgments 1. Twelve Stories Miami Stories MarIa de los Angeles and Yvette Santana: August 1993 Melanie Fernandez-Rey: September 1993 Aristide Maillol: August 1993 Armando and Luis Hern*ndez: July 1995 Mary Patterson: February 1995 EfrEn Montejo: May 1994 San Diego Stories Jorge, Olga, Miguel Angel, and Estela Cardozo: January 1994 Quy Nguyen: December 1987 Bennie and Jennifer Montoya: October 1995 Sophy Keng: November 1987 - June 1988 Yolanda and Carlos Munoz: March 1994 Boua Cha: 1988 - 1990 2. The New Americans: An Overview Immigration Yesterday and Today The Size and Concentration of the Second Generation Studying the New Second Generation: The Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study The New Second Generation at a Glance Census Results CILS Results 3. Not Everyone Is Chosen: Segmented Assimilation and Its Determinants How Immigrants Are Received: Modes of Incorporation and Their Consequences Acculturation and Role Reversal Where They Grow Up: Challenges to Second-Generation Adaptation Race Labor Markets Countercultures Confronting the Challenge: Immigrant Social Capital Parental Status, Family Structure, and Gender The Immigrant Community Conclusion 4. Making It in America Early Adaptation and Achievement General Trends Nationality and Achievement Determinants of Parental Economic Achievement Interaction Effects Nationality and Family Composition Conclusion 5. In Their Own Eyes: Immigrant Outlooks on America Aura Lila MarIn, Cuban, 53, Single Mother (1994) Pao Yang, Laotian Hmong, 57, Father (1995) Optimism Permissiveness Ambition Community and Pride Conclusion 6. Lost in Translation: Language and the New Second Generation Bilingualism: Yesterday and Today Shadow Boxing: Myth and Reality of Language Acculturation General Trends National Differences Forced-March Acculturation What Makes a Bilingual? A Game of Mirrors: Language Instruction and Types of Acculturation 7. Defining the Situation: The Ethnic Identities of Children of Immigrants Sites of Belonging: The Complex Allegiances of Children of Immigrants Developing a Self Past Research Who Am I? Patterns of Ethnic Self-Identification Ethnic Identity Shifts Stability and Salience Ethnic Self-Identities by National Origin Where Do I Come From? Nation, Family, and Identity Correlates of Self-Identities Family Status, Composition, and Language The Influence of Parental Self-Identities Region, Schools, and Discrimination The Race Question Determinants of Ethnic and Racial Identities Conclusion: From Translation Artists to Living Paradoxes 8. The Crucible Within: Family, Schools, and the Psychology of the Second Generation San Diego Families Family Cohesion, Conflict, and Change School Environments and Peer Groups Psychological Well-Being: Self-Esteem and Depressive Affect School Engagement and Effort Educational Expectations Determinants of Psychosocial Outcomes Self-Esteem and Depression Ambition Conclusion 9. School Achievement and Failure Early Educational Achievement Preliminary Results Determinants of Early Achievement Educational Achievement in Late Adolescence Grades in Senior High School Change over Time Dropping Out of School Two Achievement Paradoxes Southeast Asians Cuban Americans Conclusion 10. Conclusion: Mainstream Ideologies and the Long-Term Prospects of Immigrant Communities Two Mainstream Ideologies A Third Way: Selective Acculturation and Bilingualism The Mexican Case Theoretical Reprise Time and Acculturation Reactive Ethnicity and Its Aftermath Appendix A. Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study: Follow-up Questionnaire Appendix B. Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study: Parental Questionnaire Appendix C. Variables Used in Multivariate Analyses: Chapters 6 to 9 Notes References Index

Special books section

R. D. Grillo (ed.), ’Nation’ and ‘State’ in Europe, Academic Press, 1980, £9.80, 201 pp. Peter Loizos, The Heart Grown Bitter: A Chronical of Cypriot War Refugees, Cambridge University Press, 1981, £17.50h.b., £5.95 p.b.,219 pp. Leo Eitinger and David Schwarz (eds.), Strangers in the World, Hans Huber, 370 pp. David Sibley, Outsiders in Urban Societies, Basil Blackwell, 1981, £12.50 h.b., £5.95 p.b., 212 pp.