Harm Tillema

Belief change towards self-directed learning in student teachers: immersion in practice or reflection on action

Abstract Although belief change in student teachers constitutes a more important aim in programmes of teacher education than knowledge transmission per se, it is by no means clear what prompts a meaningful transition from existing — and often implicit — beliefs to professionally oriented frameworks for teaching. Reflection-oriented learning by student teachers has been put forward as the major route towards helping them to grow in their practice teaching, and to actively involve them in changing and (re)constructing their own knowledge base for teaching. However, practice teaching often severely challenges these constructed beliefs, and so reflection subsequently loses its claim to be a guide to future action. In this study, the dynamic interchange between reflection and immersion into practice teaching is related to the process of belief change, with student teachers engaging in self-directed teaching methods. It challenges long-held assumptions by indicating that reflection after practice may be a more professionally fruitful way of effecting belief change than reflectively preparing student teachers before they enter their practice teaching, with beliefs which are not grounded in their own teaching experience.

Clarifying different types of portfolio use

As becomes apparent in the growing literature on portfolios as assessment tools, there is a wide array of definitions and interpretations of the instrument. The prospects and benefits of portfolios being discussed increasingly call for a need to distinguish between types of portfolio. In this paper four types of portfolios are compared based on their goals and setting of use. Descriptive and evaluative data were collected as a background for comparative analyses between types of portfolio and in-depth interviews were undertaken to find out about the reasons and explanations for different portfolio use by their collectors. The analyses is focused on three criteria of portfolio use as they relate to different elements of the portfolio collection process: (i) the clarity and explicitness of the portfolio collection; (ii) the feasibility of the collection process itself; (iii) trust in the outcome of what is being collected. The study indicates that feasibility considerations are mainly responsible for differences between types, linked to an uncertainty and ambiguity on the part of the collectors to engage in the process of compilation. The trust in the portfolio instrument as a valid tool to assess abilities seems hardly affected and remained high. A major concern across different types of portfolio for all users is the feedback provided and potential use of collected information.

Self-regulated learning in the context of teacher education

Abstract Self-regulation usually refers to awareness and knowledge of ones learning and cognition and the control of ones cognition that renders this ability essential in learning and development. Recently, the concept has been studied intensively, except in professional learning. The concepts potential is especially good in student teacher learning since prospective teaching professionals are likely to be confronted with modes of learning based on self-regulation to be adopted in their teaching. Also, new approaches to meaningful, active learning in teacher education programmes encourage teacher educators to promote self-regulation in their students. A qualitative study in two countries investigated the differences in perceptions among teacher educators and student teachers about meaning, implementation and expected behaviours of self-regulation as a vehicle for learning in teacher education programmes. Results from the interviews indicate clear support for the concept of self-regulated learning, although the conditions for its actual implementation are not always favourable. Self-regulation places considerable demands on organization and curricula in teacher education. Student teachers were found to have a more positive attitude toward self-regulated learning and higher expectations about their own self-regulative competencies than their teachers, who seemed more concerned with their students’ preparation for the profession. Highlighting self-regulation in teacher education programmes requires new ways of interaction between teacher educators and their students.

Long-term Influences of Portfolios on Professional Development

In recent publications on the use of portfolios in professional training both their goals, application and success are reported in favourable terms. The main purposes of portfolios being put forward are: documentation of performance, monitoring growth, revealing discrepancies in development and enhancing self-responsibility. The findings, however, pertain to the introductory implementation of the portfolio instrument, most notably with (student) teachers. Not much is known about the sustained use of a portfolio as an instrument to support professional development in the long term. In this study the benefits of different forms of sustained portfolio use are focused on in particular. Use is related to the portfolios function, which can be for both professional development and certification, and to the setting and conditions of use, which may be either mandatory or voluntary. We gauge its impact on indicators like ongoing documentation, systematic reflection, dialogue with significant others and learning for professional development. The difficulties experienced users found are discussed, as well as the gains they saw in sustained use of portfolios, which led us to conclude that portfolios are mainly used for documentation but have a high potential as mirrors of competence when issued as instruments for self-evaluation and self-assessment.

Promoting teacher reflection: what is said to be done

The present article’s aim is to evaluate studies that promote teacher reflection. Through programmes of professional development, teachers are being encouraged to improve their reflective practice. This paper explores the grounding of what is advocated as reflective teaching and looks at possible differences between what is evidenced in research and what is promoted in practice. For this purpose, the content of a collection of texts published in teacher journals was analysed. The texts disseminated reflections on action to teachers. An analytical framework was used to evaluate the professional development proposals for teachers’ reflective practice. The findings indicated there was a lack of agreement about how to conduct reflection, as well as a wide variety of types of reflection. Many proposals lacked empirical and theoretical support. A strong trend was noted towards prescription, despite the fact that little justification was provided for the advice. This led us to conclude that teachers are provided with only limited information on how to improve their reflective practice, which may hamper its use.

Stability and Change in Student Teachers’ Beliefs about Teaching

The literature on learning to teach repeatedly points to the stability and even inertness of student teachers beliefs, as an outcome of specific programmes or interventions aimed at belief change. The present study also finds seemingly unchanged beliefs of student teachers as the outcome of an intervention programme. However, more detailed analysis shows that change does occur, although not in a unidirectional or intended way and not in the same manner for each student teacher. A model is proposed with which to interpret these differences. Belief change is regarded as a form of conceptual change which is modified by escape routes and alternative conceptions to which the student teacher can revert in order to not have to change or assimilate new or disconcerting information. Some findings are reported which corroborate the proposed model.

Evaluating Portfolio Use as a Learning Tool for Professionals

Abstract Portfolio use has become lauded as an alternative assessment tool. In this paper, the developmental use of portfolios is advocated, stressing a self‐regulative and reflective deployment of the portfolio. Two studies, portfolio construction and compilation by principals and managers, as different types of users, in the context of a training course to monitor changes in the conceptions and evaluation using of portfolios as a tool for providing functional feedback. Both studies showed a marked similarity in their findings, concluding that high quality portfolios can only be expected after sustained use. The portfolio use made an immediate impact on the participants’ views on assessment. However, it was difficult to promote reflection; the essential skills in this respect need to be developed further. It is concluded that, despite their time‐consuming nature, portfolios can be regarded as instruments that provide relevant feedback for learning.

Knowledge construction in collaborative enquiry among teachers

In this article knowledge productivity, a process that creates conceptual artifacts, is used as a way to investigate the outcomes of collaborative and enquiry‐oriented activity by teaching professionals. It is an outcome of the motivation to learn (self‐regulation) in that it studies the issues from different professional perspectives (reflection on action) while aiming towards the construction of new knowledge and understanding (conceptual change). A team approach was used in order to examine how teachers working together as a team could become knowledge‐productive learners in their work environment. In three different cases the outcomes of the study team process were evaluated against three different criteria of knowledge productivity: (a) improving knowledge and understanding; (b) shifting individual perspectives; (c) achieving commitment to the outcomes for professional practice. Process accounts and retrospective evaluations by the three study teams themselves were the basis for judging evidence of knowledge productivity. The approach has revealed insights into ways in which the teachers accepted the study team’s (collaborative) outcomes, especially their initial (un)easiness for sharing existing knowledge and their (un)certainties about practicing the results of their collaborative enquiry.

Teacher reflection on action: what is said (in research) and what is done (in teaching)

Teacher reflection on action has been studied extensively in the last 25 years. To appreciate the concept and its use, we should look at the key features of reflection on action (TRA) as identified in research and what teachers state is typical of reflection. In three other studies we have explored possible alignments among (1) what has been claimed (using 50 conceptual papers); (2) what has been disseminated to teachers (using 122 articles on teacher development); and (3) what has been described by teachers (analyzing 49 teacher accounts of reflection practices). As a result of this exploration, we found little empirical evidence for what has been stated in theoretical essays. The research‐based papers revealed that the studies conducted were not very relevant for key characteristics of TRA as identified by the theoretical papers. Furthermore, in attempting to gauge teachers’ reflections, the research does not really reflect what is advocated by models of reflection. These findings led us to conclude that the concept of teacher reflection on action is still very much in flux and may not be adopted as intended in programs of teacher professional development and teacher education.

“Practising what we preach”—teacher educators’ dilemmas in promoting self-regulated learning: a cross case comparison

Abstract Teacher educators, as mentors involved in developing student–teacher learning, encounter increasing demands to promote self-regulated learning (SRL) in their students. This study investigated how teacher educators are committed to promoting SRL in their students, as well as how they promote their own professional development as self-regulated learners, which may (or may not) mirror the way they support SRL in their students. In both the Israeli and Dutch teacher education contexts, the study investigated how teacher educators conceptualize SRL and what they mean by actively utilizing SRL approaches, both as a framework for their own professional development and as a way to involve their students in self-directed learning. The study notes several professional dilemmas teacher educators face with respect to SRL. These dilemmas seem to be connected to their underlying conceptions of teaching and learning, as well as the demands of the setting in which they teach. Furthermore, what teacher educators themselves are doing in terms of SRL does not align with what they are teaching others to do; this divergence was the case in the Dutch context more than in the Israeli context. As such, teacher educators struggled with both learning to use SRL approaches themselves, and teaching their students to use them.