Harold A. Singer

Evidence for STIM1- and Orai1-dependent store-operated calcium influx through ICRAC in vascular smooth muscle cells: role in proliferation and migration

The identity of store‐operated calcium (Ca2+) entry (SOCE) channels in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) remains a highly contentious issue. Whereas previous studies have suggested that SOCE in VSMCs is mediated by the nonselective transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) 1 protein, the identification of STIM1 and Orail as essential components of ICRAC, a highly Ca2+‐selective SOCE current in leukocytes, has challenged that view. Here we show that cultured proliferative migratory VSMCs isolated from rat aorta (called “synthetic”) display SOCE with classic features, namely inhibition by 2‐aminoethoxydiphenyl borate, ML‐9, and low concentrations of lanthanides. On store depletion, synthetic VSMCs and A7r5 cells display currents with characteristics of ICRAC. Protein knockdown of either STIM1 or Orail in synthetic VSMCs greatly reduced SOCE, whereas Orai2, Orai3, TRPC1, TRPC4, and TRPC6 knockdown had no effect. Orail knockdown reduced ICRAC in synthetic VSMCs and A7r5 cells. Synthetic VSMCs showed up‐regulated STIM1/Orai1 proteins and SOCE compared with quiescent freshly isolated VSMC. Knockdown of STIM1 and Orai1 inhibited synthetic VSMC proliferation and migration, whereas STIM2, Orai2, and Orai3 knockdown had no effect. To our knowledge, these results are the first to show ICRAC in VSMCs and resolve a long‐standing controversy by identifying CRAC as the elusive VSMC SOCE channel important for proliferation and migration.— Potier, M., Gonzalez, J. C., Motiani, R. K., Abdullaev, I. F., Bisaillon, J. M., Singer, H. A., Trebak, M. Evidence for STIM1‐ and Orai1‐ dependent store‐operated calcium influx through IC RAC in vascular smooth muscle cells: role in proliferation and migration. FASEB J. 23, 2425–2437 (2009)

The non-excitable smooth muscle: Calcium signaling and phenotypic switching during vascular disease

Calcium (Ca2+) is a highly versatile second messenger that controls vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) contraction, proliferation, and migration. By means of Ca2+ permeable channels, Ca2+ pumps and channels conducting other ions such as potassium and chloride, VSMC keep intracellular Ca2+ levels under tight control. In healthy quiescent contractile VSMC, two important components of the Ca2+ signaling pathways that regulate VSMC contraction are the plasma membrane voltage-operated Ca2+ channel of the high voltage-activated type (L-type) and the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release channel, Ryanodine Receptor (RyR). Injury to the vessel wall is accompanied by VSMC phenotype switch from a contractile quiescent to a proliferative motile phenotype (synthetic phenotype) and by alteration of many components of VSMC Ca2+ signaling pathways. Specifically, this switch that culminates in a VSMC phenotype reminiscent of a non-excitable cell is characterized by loss of L-type channels expression and increased expression of the low voltage-activated (T-type) Ca2+ channels and the canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) channels. The expression levels of intracellular Ca2+ release channels, pumps and Ca2+-activated proteins are also altered: the proliferative VSMC lose the RyR3 and the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase isoform 2a pump and reciprocally regulate isoforms of the ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II. This review focuses on the changes in expression of Ca2+ signaling proteins associated with VSMC proliferation both in vitro and in vivo. The physiological implications of the altered expression of these Ca2+ signaling molecules, their contribution to VSMC dysfunction during vascular disease and their potential as targets for drug therapy will be discussed.

Essential role for STIM1/Orai1-mediated calcium influx in PDGF-induced smooth muscle migration

We recently demonstrated that thapsigargin-induced passive store depletion activates Ca(2+) entry in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) through stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1)/Orai1, independently of transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels. However, under physiological stimulations, despite the ubiquitous depletion of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive stores, many VSMC PLC-coupled agonists (e.g., vasopressin and endothelin) activate various store-independent Ca(2+) entry channels. Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) is an important VSMC promigratory agonist with an established role in vascular disease. Nevertheless, the molecular identity of the Ca(2+) channels activated by PDGF in VSMC remains unknown. Here we show that inhibitors of store-operated Ca(2+) entry (Gd(3+) and 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate at concentrations as low as 5 microM) prevent PDGF-mediated Ca(2+) entry in cultured rat aortic VSMC. Protein knockdown of STIM1, Orai1, and PDGF receptor-beta (PDGFRbeta) impaired PDGF-mediated Ca(2+) influx, whereas Orai2, Orai3, TRPC1, TRPC4, and TRPC6 knockdown had no effect. Scratch wound assay showed that knockdown of STIM1, Orai1, or PDGFRbeta inhibited PDGF-mediated VSMC migration, but knockdown of STIM2, Orai2, and Orai3 was without effect. STIM1, Orai1, and PDGFRbeta mRNA levels were upregulated in vivo in VSMC from balloon-injured rat carotid arteries compared with noninjured control vessels. Protein levels of STIM1 and Orai1 were also upregulated in medial and neointimal VSMC from injured carotid arteries compared with noninjured vessels, as assessed by immunofluorescence microscopy. These results establish that STIM1 and Orai1 are important components for PDGF-mediated Ca(2+) entry and migration in VSMC and are upregulated in vivo during vascular injury and provide insights linking PDGF to STIM1/Orai1 during neointima formation.

A Role for Ca2+/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase II in the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Cascade of Cultured Rat Aortic Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

Exposure of cultured rat aortic vascular smooth muscle (VSM) cells to the Ca2+ ionophore ionomycin produced an increase in extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) activity that was maximal between 2 and 5 minutes but then declined to basal values within 20 minutes of stimulation. Elevation of [Ca2+]i in VSM cells leads to an even more rapid activation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaM kinase II); thus, it was postulated that the Ca(2+)-dependent component of ERK1/2 activation was mediated by CaM kinase II. Transient ERK1/2 activation by ionomycin was almost completely abolished by pretreating cells with 30 mumol/L KN-93, a CaM kinase II inhibitor. Treatment of cells with KN-93 did not antagonize the ability of ionomycin to mobilize intracellular Ca2+ but prevented CaM kinase II and ERK1/2 activation with almost identical potencies. Consistent with a role for Ca2+ and calmodulin in intracellular Ca(2+)-induced activation of ERK, cells pretreated with calmodulin inhibitors (W-7 or calmidazolium) exhibited an attenuated ERK response to ionomycin. ERK1/2 activation in response to phorbol esters and platelet-derived growth factor were not significantly affected by KN-93, whereas the response to angiotensin II and thrombin were attenuated by 60% and 40%, respectively. Transient expression of wild-type delta 2 CaM kinase II in COS-7 cells resulted in increased ERK2 activity, whereas coexpression of wild-type and a kinase-negative mutant resulted in a diminution of this response. These data suggest that regulation of cellular responses by Ca(2+)-dependent pathways in VSM cells may be mediated in part by CaM kinase II-dependent activation of ERK1/2.

Calcium Signaling through CaMKII Regulates Hepatic Glucose Production in Fasting and Obesity

Hepatic glucose production (HGP) is crucial for glucose homeostasis, but the underlying mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Here, we show that a calcium-sensing enzyme, CaMKII, is activated in a calcium- and IP3R-dependent manner by cAMP and glucagon in primary hepatocytes and by glucagon and fasting in vivo. Genetic deficiency or inhibition of CaMKII blocks nuclear translocation of FoxO1 by affecting its phosphorylation, impairs fasting- and glucagon/cAMP-induced glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, and lowers blood glucose levels, while constitutively active CaMKII has the opposite effects. Importantly, the suppressive effect of CaMKII deficiency on glucose metabolism is abrogated by transduction with constitutively nuclear FoxO1, indicating that the effect of CaMKII deficiency requires nuclear exclusion of FoxO1. This same pathway is also involved in excessive HGP in the setting of obesity. These results reveal a calcium-mediated signaling pathway involved in FoxO1 nuclear localization and hepatic glucose homeostasis.

Critical Role of Vimentin Phosphorylation at Ser-56 by p21-activated Kinase in Vimentin Cytoskeleton Signaling

Phosphorylation and spatial reorganization of the vimentin network have been implicated in mediating smooth muscle contraction, cell migration, and mitosis. In this study, stimulation of cultured smooth muscle cells with 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) induced PAK1 phosphorylation at Thr-423 (an indication of p21-activated kinase (PAK) activation). Treatment with PAK led to disassembly of wild-type (but not mutant S56A) vimentin filaments as assessed by an in vitro filament assembly assay. Furthermore, stimulation with 5-HT resulted in the dissociation of Crk-associated substrate (CAS; an adapter protein associated with smooth muscle force development) from cytoskeletal vimentin. Expression of mutant S56A vimentin in cells inhibited the increase in phosphorylation at Ser-56 and in the ratios of soluble to insoluble vimentin (an index of vimentin disassembly) and the dissociation of CAS from cytoskeletal vimentin in response to 5-HT activation compared with cells expressing wild-type vimentin. Because CAS may be involved in PAK activation, PAK phosphorylation was evaluated in cells expressing the S56A mutant. Expression of mutant S56A vimentin depressed PAK phosphorylation at Thr-423 induced by 5-HT. Expression of the S56A mutant also inhibited the spatial reorientation of vimentin filaments in cells in response to 5-HT stimulation. Our results suggest that vimentin phosphorylation at Ser-56 may inversely regulate PAK activation possibly via the increase in the amount of soluble CAS upon agonist stimulation of smooth muscle cells. Additionally, vimentin phosphorylation at this position is critical for vimentin filament spatial rearrangement elicited by agonists.

Ca2+–calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II-dependent activation of contractility in ferret aorta

1 The present study was undertaken to determine whether Ca2+‐calmodulin‐dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) participates in the regulation of vascular smooth muscle contraction, and if so, to investigate the nature of the downstream effectors. 2 The contractility of isolated ferret aorta was measured while inhibiting CaMKII either with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides against CaMKII or with the CaMKII inhibitor KN93. 3 Treatment with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides against CaMKII resulted in, on average, a decrease in protein levels of CaMKII to 56 % of control levels and significantly decreased the magnitude of the contraction in response to 51 mm potassium physiological saline solution (KCl). Contraction in response to the phorbol ester DPBA was not significantly affected. 4 The CaMKII blocker KN93 also resulted in a significant decrease in the force induced by 51 mm KCl but caused no significant change in the contraction in response to DPBA or the α‐adrenoceptor agonist phenylephrine. 5 During contraction with 51 mm KCl, both CaMKII and mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) activity increased, as determined by phospho‐specific antibodies. The MAPK phosphorylation level was inhibited by KN93, PD098059 (a MAPK kinase (MEK) inhibitor) and calcium depletion. 6 Myosin light chain (LC20) phosphorylation also increased during contraction with KCl and the increase was significantly blocked by PD098059 as well as by both KN93 and antisense oligodeoxynucleotides to CaMKII. 7 The data indicate that CaMKII plays a significant role in the regulation of smooth muscle contraction and suggest that CaMKII activates a pathway by which MAPK activation leads to phosphorylation of LC20 via activation of myosin light chain kinase.

Angiotensin II is a potent stimulator of MAP-kinase activity in neonatal rat cardiac fibroblasts

We have previously shown that angiotensin II (AII) is a mitogen for neonatal rat cardiac fibroblasts. However, the signaling events that lead to fibroblast cell growth in response to AII remain to be elucidated. Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases are cytosolic serine/threonine kinases which have been shown to be activated in quiescent cells by diverse growth stimuli, thereby being linked to growth regulatory pathways. This study was designed to determine whether MAP-kinase activation occurred in response to AII/receptor coupling in neonatal rat cardiac fibroblasts and the role of MAP-kinase activation in the AII-induced proliferation of these cells. Immunoblot analysis of MAP-kinase isoforms revealed predominantly p44 with less p42 MAP-kinase in rat cardiac fibroblasts. Both isoforms were activated upon stimulation of the cells with AII for 5 min or platelet derived growth factor-BB for 10 min. Angiotensin II stimulated MAP-kinase in a dose-dependent fashion with an EC50 of 2.5 nM. Two minutes following stimulation with 1 microM AII MAP-kinase activity increased from 90 +/- 17.9 to 477.5 +/- 75.9 pmol/min/mg protein, P < 0.05, n = 4. A smaller, sustained, secondary increase in MAP-kinase activity from 37.7 +/- 5.3 to 110.9 +/- 15.3 pmol/min/mg protein, P < 0.05, n = 4, was observed in response to AII between 120-150 minutes following receptor occupancy. The responses to AII were markedly attenuated by the AT1 receptor antagonist EXP3174. Stimulation of the cells with carbachol induced the first but not the second phase of MAP-kinase activity and this compound had no effect on cellular growth. The second phase of MAP-kinase activity 2-2.5 h after AII stimulation, paralleled data demonstrating that a 2-3 h receptor occupancy with AII was necessary to induce DNA synthesis and fibroblast proliferation. These results indicate that AII stimulates a biphasic activation of MAP-kinase by the AT1 receptor and that this pathway may participate in the AII induced mitogenic response in cardiac fibroblasts.

Interplay Between Calcium and Reactive Oxygen/Nitrogen Species: An Essential Paradigm for Vascular Smooth Muscle Signaling

Signaling cascades initiated or regulated by calcium (Ca(2+)), reactive oxygen (ROS), and nitrogen (RNS) species are essential to diverse physiological and pathological processes in vascular smooth muscle. Stimuli-induced changes in intracellular Ca(2+) regulate the activity of primary ROS and RNS, producing enzymes including NADPH oxidases (Nox) and nitric oxide synthases (NOS). At the same time, alteration in intracellular ROS and RNS production reciprocates through redox-based post-translational modifications altering Ca(2+) signaling networks. These may include Ca(2+) pumps such as sarcoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA), voltage-gated channels, transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC), melastatin2 (TRPM2), and ankyrin1 (TRPA1) channels, store operated Ca(2+) channels such as Orai1/stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), and Ca(2+) effectors such as Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). In this review, we summarize and highlight current experimental evidence supporting the idea that cross-talk between Ca(2+) and ROS/RNS may represent a well-integrated signaling network in vascular smooth muscle.

Type-3 Ryanodine Receptors Mediate Hypoxia-, but Not Neurotransmitter-induced Calcium Release and Contraction in Pulmonary Artery Smooth Muscle Cells

In this study we examined the expression of RyR subtypes and the role of RyRs in neurotransmitter- and hypoxia-induced Ca2+ release and contraction in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). Under perforated patch clamp conditions, maximal activation of RyRs with caffeine or inositol triphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) with noradrenaline induced equivalent increases in [Ca2+]i and Ca2+-activated Cl− currents in freshly isolated rat PASMCs. Following maximal IP3-induced Ca2+ release, neither caffeine nor chloro-m-cresol induced a response, whereas prior application of caffeine or chloro-m-cresol blocked IP3-induced Ca2+ release. In cultured human PASMCs, which lack functional expression of RyRs, caffeine failed to affect ATP-induced increases in [Ca2+]i in the presence and absence of extracellular Ca2+. The RyR antagonists ruthenium red, ryanodine, tetracaine, and dantrolene greatly inhibited submaximal noradrenaline– and hypoxia-induced Ca2+ release and contraction in freshly isolated rat PASMCs, but did not affect ATP-induced Ca2+ release in cultured human PASMCs. Real-time quantitative RT-PCR and immunofluorescence staining indicated similar expression of all three RyR subtypes (RyR1, RyR2, and RyR3) in freshly isolated rat PASMCs. In freshly isolated PASMCs from RyR3 knockout (RyR3−/−) mice, hypoxia-induced, but not submaximal noradrenaline–induced, Ca2+ release and contraction were significantly reduced. Ruthenium red and tetracaine can further inhibit hypoxic increase in [Ca2+]i in RyR3−/− mouse PASMCs. Collectively, our data suggest that (a) RyRs play an important role in submaximal noradrenaline– and hypoxia-induced Ca2+ release and contraction; (b) all three subtype RyRs are expressed; and (c) RyR3 gene knockout significantly inhibits hypoxia-, but not submaximal noradrenaline–induced Ca2+ and contractile responses in PASMCs.