Harold S. Zamansky

Cognitive Competition and Hypnotic Behavior: Whither Absorption?

Abstract According to the widely held absorption notion, the successful response to hypnotic suggestions requires S to focus attention on the content of these suggestions and to avoid incompatible and contradictory cognitive activities. This assumption was tested by exposing high, middle, and low hypnotizable Ss continuously to incompatible suggestions and images as they attempted to respond to the direct suggestions of the hypnotist. Performance under these circumstances was substantially as effective as in baseline sessions (without incompatible suggestions) for the high and medium hypnotizable Ss. On the other hand, fewer than half of the low hypnotizable Ss responded successfully. The results are viewed as compatible with both a social enactment and a neodissociation interpretation of hypnosis.

Cognitive strategies in hypnosis: toward resolving the hypnotic conflict.

2 experiments were carried out to assess the relative contributions of dissociation and absorption as cognitive strategies employed by high and low hypnotizable Ss in responding successfully to hypnotic suggestions. Of special interest was the manner in which Ss deal with conflicting information typically inherent in hypnotic suggestions. In the first experiment, Ss rated their attentional focus and the involuntariness of their experience after responding to a number of hypnotic suggestions administered in the usual manner. In the second experiment, the level of conflict was varied by instructing some Ss to imagine a circumstance that was congruent and other Ss to imagine a circumstance that was incongruent with the suggested behavioral response. The results of the 2 experiments were consistent in suggesting that, depending upon the nature of the hypnotic suggestion, high hypnotizable Ss are able to employ dissociation or absorption in order to respond successfully. Low hypnotizable Ss, on the other hand, seem to be relatively ineffective dissociators. When the structure of the hypnotic suggestion precludes the use of absorption, the performance of low hypnotizables deteriorates.

REDUCTION OF WORD-RECOGNITION THRESHOLD UNDER HYPNOSIS

In two experiments with 24 Ss each, the recognition threshold for common English words was reduced under hypnosis. Thresholds were also reduced, however, after waking suggestions and, in one of the experiments, after a prolonged rest period. In all these cases, the amount of the threshold reduction was highly correlated with the initial threshold level. Since these initial thresholds were apparently inflated by Ss expectancy for hypnosis, the subsequent threshold reduction may reflect merely the termination of this expectancy and not the direct influence of the treatment variables. The effect of hypnosis upon thresholds uninflated by the expectancy for hypnosis remains to be tested.

Making hypnosis happen: The involuntariness of the hypnotic experience.

The authors tested the hypothesis that hypnotized individuals do not truly experience their responses to suggestions as occurring involuntarily, but instead absorb themselves in imagery that is congruent with the suggestions while avoiding critical thoughts, or even simply comply with suggestions without genuinely experiencing their responses as nonvolitional. Participants were instructed to engage in thoughts and imagery that conflicted with the suggestions given, were urged to pay attention to their behavior, and were questioned regarding the perceived involuntariness of their responses. Simultaneously, electrodermal skin conductance responses provided a measure of the truthfulness of their reports. It was found that responses to all hypnotic suggestions were reported as being involuntary, in spite of the conflicting imagery and increased saliency, and that these reports were truthful. These findings provide disconfirming evidence for the sociocognitive theories of hypnosis.

Word recognition with masking

At illuminances between .07 and 17 ft.-c, the word-recognition threshold was lower when a common word was preceded and followed by a homogenous field than by a noise pattern composed of a random array of bits of letters. Most of the difference is ascribed to the pattern’s interference with post-stimulatory processes. This interference may explain why with masking the threshold reached a minimum at 90 msec. and then did not decrease further despite increasing illuminance, whereas without masking the threshold continued to decrease down to 7 msec, the shortest duration tested.

The experience of effortlessness in hypnosis: Perceived or real?

Hypnotized individuals who successfully respond to a suggestion typically report that the response requires little or no cognitive effort. It is important, however, to distinguish between whether this effect occurs in actual effort or is only perceived. In addition, the authors distinguish between cognitive effort expended to initiate a response and that required to maintain it. The authors examine the different predictions of four theories-compliance theory, sociocognitive theory (Lynn & Rhue, 1991), Hilgards (1986) neodissociation theory, and Bowerss (1992) theory of dissociated control-regarding both of these distinctions. Experimental evidence bearing on the various predictions is examined. Additionally, the authors propose a number of design modifications that may help sort out the variables contributing to the effortlessness of the hypnotic response.

Synthetic versus analytic imaging ability as correlates of hypnotizability

Abstract It was hypothesized that synthetic imaging ability, but not analytic imaging ability, is positively related to hypnotizability. The correlation of scores on a paired-associates task, used as a measure of synthetic imaging ability, with xores on the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C) of Weitzenhoffer and Hilgard (1962), indicated a statistically nonsignificant trend in the predicted direction. 2 measures of analytic imaging ability, as well as Sheehans (1967) revision of the Betts (1909) Questionnaire Upon Mental Imagery, a measure of vividness of imagery, did not correlate significantly with SHSS:C. The results are discussed in terms of their relation to studies of creativity and goaldirected fantasy.

Hypnosis as Dissociation: Methodological Considerations and Preliminary Findings

Abstract Three criteria are proposed to be met by any experience labelled as “dissociation.” A preliminary experiment is described that illustrates one way in which two of these criteria may be operationalized, and that assesses the relationship between successful performance on the two criteria and hypnotic susceptibility. The results are viewed as consistent with Hilgards (1977) hypothesis that hypnotic susceptibility and the ability to dissociate are positively related.

MODIFICATION OF THE WORD-RECOGNITION THRESHOLD BY HYPNOTIC SUGGESTION AND MONETARY REWARD.

The effectiveness of hypnotic suggestion, monetary reward, and a control condition (no special incentive) in reducing the recognition threshold for common English words was measured, using 3 groups of 11 Ss. Threshold reductions were obtained ultimately under all 3 conditions, although the reductions occurred sooner with the two incentive conditions. Since, for all three groups, initial thresholds were apparently inflated by Ss expectancy for hypnosis, the subsequent threshold reductions may reflect merely the termination of this expectancy and not the direct influence of the incentive conditions. The interpretation is offered that hypnotic or monetary incentives for threshold reduction may be relatively ineffective when Ss operate initially near optimal levels.

The conceptual space of good and poor hypnotic subjects: a preliminary exploration.

Abstract A form of the Semantic Differential, containing eight concepts related to hypnosis and research, was administered to 12 deeply hypnotizable and 14 nonsusceptible Ss. The good hypnotic Ss evaluated all the concepts more favorably than did the poor hypnotic Ss, with the greatest differential between the two groups occurring on the concept hypnosis. Moreover, the susceptible Ss perceived hypnosis as closer in connotative meaning to such concepts as experiment and professor, then did the nonsusceptible Ss. All differences between the two groups of Ss were of small absolute magnitude, however. Therefore, while the results suggest a relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and attitude toward hypnosis, they appear to preclude the use of the Semantic Differential as a practical predictor of hypnotic susceptibility.