Harriet L. Rheingold

Development of Pointing as a Social Gesture

This study sought to discover the age at which infants call interesting objects to anothers attention by pointing, to relate their ability to follow anothers pointing to their own use of the gesture, and to compare the uses of pointing and reaching. Infants between 10.5 and 16.5 months of age were studied with their mothers in a setting containing six special stimulus objects. By 12.5 months, a majority of infants pointed, usually vocalizing or looking at their partner while pointing. The communicative function of the gesture was further established by the partners response of verbal acknowledgment and looking at the object. The ability to follow anothers points seemed to be acquired before the infants began to point but improved with their own use of the gesture. Reaching partook of the behaviors associated with pointing but developed earlier and decreased as pointing increased. The data show that at an early age infants exhibit an elementary form of the ability to take the visual perspective of others. When adults point to an event or object of interest at some distance, they extend an arm and index finger toward it, usually comment briefly on what is being singled out, and then check to see that their partner is looking in the correct direction. Thus, the act of pointing can be said to consist of three components: the gesture itself, a relevant verbal utterance, and visual monitoring of the intended recipient of the message. At what age do children begin to point spontaneously for apparently the same purpose

Fear of the Stranger: A Critical Examination

Publisher Summary This chapter challenges the generally accepted idea that during the second half year of life the human infant fears a stranger, and that such fear is a criterion of normal development. To document the challenge, it presents contrary evidence from the laboratory as well as a critical examination of the empirical literature. The support provided to the concept by current theoretical explanations is also questioned. Such questioning raises doubts about the appropriateness of the terms fear and stranger. In conclusion, the chapter shows the need for a fuller study of the childs behavior to capture the richness and sensitivity with which he or she responds to unfamiliar persons.

The infant's free entry into a new environment.

Abstract The 10-month-old infants free entry into a new environment was investigated by varying the number and location of objects (toys) in it, as well as the time when they appeared. Each infant was placed with his mother in a small room and allowed access to a larger room (the new environment). In Exp. 1, the effect of a toy in the larger room was compared with that of no toy on the infants leaving his mother and entering the room. All Ss entered the larger room whether it was empty or contained a toy. Those without a toy spent more time with the mother and incidental objects; in contrast, the other Ss played with the toy. In Exp. 2, with the same Ss, the effect of one toy was compared with that of three toys on the behavior of infants who previously had a toy and those who previously had none. Those who were given toys for the first time entered sooner, stayed in the larger room longer, and played with the toys more than Ss who had previously had a toy. Three toys increased the time Ss spent away from the mother, the distance they traveled, and the time they played with the toys in the larger room. The findings show that the number and location of objects, as well as the time of their appearance, controlled the infants behavior in the new environment and call attention to stimuli that lead the infant from his mother.

Method for Studying Exploratory Behavior in Infants

An experimental crib has been designed for use in studying the effect of visual feedback upon the exploratory behavior of the human infant. It can be easily adapted to older children, to some animals, and to problems other than the development of exploratory behavior.

Visual and auditory reinforcement of a manipulatory response in the young child

Abstract Children, aged 2–5 years, were given an opportunity to touch a ball and to discover that a touch could result in a short sequence of motion pictures accompanied by music. The reinforcing effects of the visual and auditory stimuli were assessed primarily by the extent to which fixed ratio (FR) schedules of reinforcement controlled rate of response. In one group of 20 Ss assigned to FRs, 15 Ss showed increasing rates of response with advancing ratios. In a second group of 5 Ss maintained on continuous reinforcement (CRF), none showed a progressive increase in rate of response during the session. The data indicate that the stimuli functioned as reinforcers. The findings suggest that manipulatory behaviors, through which the child learns some of the dimensions of his environment, can be maintained by the stimulation resulting from the manipulation.

Approach and exploration of a novel alternative by 12-month-old infants ☆ ☆☆

Abstract The present study showed that 12-month-old infants when they left their mothers entered the more novel of 2 rooms and played with the more novel of 2 toys. Two 5-min trials took place in the experimental environment which consisted of 1 large room (start room) with 2 smaller rooms (test rooms) opening into it and containing 1 toy each. In Trial 1 Ss were placed with their mothers in the start room and allowed to enter 1 test room and play with the toy it contained. All but 1 S entered the room and contacted the toy. In Trial 2 the door to the second test room was opened and Ss were allowed to enter both rooms. Ten of the 12 Ss entered the novel test room and contacted the novel toy first. Furthermore, during Trial 2 the Ss spent reliably more time both in the novel test room and playing with the novel toy. The consistent choice of novel stimulation demonstrates that the infant learns and remembers the properties of rooms and objects he encounters and by selectively approaching the novel elements of the environment he increases the range of his own learning opportunities.

THE INFANT AS A MEMBER OF SOCETY

Abstract. An analysis of the social development of the infant and young child offers a salutary view of human nature. To defend that claim I use as an example a recent study of how boys and girls in the second year of life assist their mothers and fathers and other persons in performing some everyday tasks. Although the behavior falls under the rubric of social behavior, it will be examined by the different components comprising it. In turn I consider the social, emotional, cognitive, and motor components of the childrens helping and briefly trace their development. Their behavior revealed a well‐developed concept of self and despite the childrens immaturity deserved the appellation of prosocial.

Growing up Social

In this chapter we consider how the research findings on the development of social behavior have affected the behavior of parents and the practices of all those professions and agencies that have the child’s best welfare at heart. The first parts of the chapter present a summary of what we now know about the development of the infant’s and young child’s social behavior. The latter parts tell how this knowledge has already been applied. Beyond this, we present suggestions for desirable changes in practices based on what we already know, and further changes that may be anticipated as a result of future research.

A laboratory for developmental psychologists

Abstract The main features of the laboratories for developmental psychologists at Chapel Hill are described. These features include: A flexible spatial arrangement of experimental rooms; a grouping of the rooms into three independent units for the conduct of research with immature organisms of different ages and species; central apparatus that controls the stimulating and recording equipment; viewing areas that permit the observation of behavior in several rooms; auditory intercommunication between all pairs of rooms; and self-contained automated devices to aid the experimenter or the observer in his tasks. These characteristics make the laboratories useful for a variety of studies.