Hartmut Echner

Pheromone Cross-Inhibition between Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis

ABSTRACT Cross-inhibition by quorum-sensing pheromones betweenStaphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis was investigated using all known S. aureus agr pheromone subgroups. All S. aureus subgroups were sensitive towards the S. epidermidis pheromone, with the exception of the recently identified subgroup 4. The subgroup 4 pheromone was also the only S. aureus pheromone able to inhibit the S. epidermidis agr response. The close relation of subgroup 4 to subgroup 1 suggests that subgroup 4 might have evolved from subgroup 1 by mutation under the selective pressure of competition with S. epidermidis. The competition between S. aureus and S. epidermidis by means of quorum-sensing cross talk seems to be generally in favor of S. epidermidis, which might explain the predominance of S. epidermidis on the skin and in infections on indwelling medical devices.

Peptide HER2(776-788) represents a naturally processed broad MHC class II-restricted T cell epitope.

HER2/neu-derived peptides inducing MHC class II-restricted CD4+ T helper lymphocyte (Th) responses, although critical for tumour rejection, are not thoroughly characterized. Here, we report the generation and characterization of CD4+ T cell clones specifically recognizing a HER-2/neu-derived peptide (776–788) [designated HER2(776–788)]. Such clones yielded specific proliferative and cytokine [gamma-interferon(IFN)-γ] responses when challenged with autologous dendritic cells (DCs) loaded with HER2(776–788). By performing blocking studies with monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) and by using DCs from allogeneic donors sharing certain HLA-DR alleles, we found that HER2(776–788) is a promiscuous peptide presented, at least, by DRB5*0101, DRB1*0701 and DRB1*0405 alleles. One TCRVbeta6.7+ clone recognized the HLA-DRB5*0101+ FM3 melanoma cell line transfected with a full length HER-2/neu cDNA. Moreover, this clone recognized the HER-2/neu+ SKBR3 breast cancer cell line induced to express HLA-DR, thus demonstrating that HER2(776–788) represents a naturally processed and presented epitope. Our data demonstrate that helper peptide HER2(776–788) represents a promiscuous epitope binding to at least three HLA-DR alleles, thus offering a broad population coverage. The use of antigenic peptides presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II in addition to those presented by class I may improve the therapeutic efficacy of active immunization.

HER-2/neu-derived peptide 884-899 is expressed by human breast, colorectal and pancreatic adenocarcinomas and is recognized by in-vitro-induced specific CD4(+) T cell clones.

Abstract. HER-2/neu peptides recognized in the context of HLA-DR molecules by CD4+ Th lymphocytes on antigen-presenting cells have been identified. In this report, we demonstrate for the first time that HER-2/neu helper epitopes are also expressed on the surface of metastatic breast, colorectal and pancreatic carcinomas. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from an HLA-DR4 healthy donor were used to induce HER-2/neu peptide-specific CD4+ T cell clones by in vitro immunization with HER-2/neu peptide (884–899)-pulsed autologous dendritic cells (DCs). Strong proliferation and significant levels of IFN-γ were induced by the CD4+ T cell clones in response to specific stimulation with autologous DCs loaded with HER-2(884–899). Furthermore, these clones also recognized HER-2/neu+ tumor cell lines, and tumor cells from breast, colorectal and pancreatic adenocarcinomas induced to express HLA-DR4, but also the HLA-DR4+ melanoma cell line FM3 transfected to express HER-2/neu. The recognition of tumor cells was strongly inhibited by an anti-HLA-DR mAb. Taken altogether, we provide novel information for the role of HER-2(884–899) as a naturally processed epitope expressed by breast, colorectal and pancreatic carcinomas and the capacity of HER-2/neu protein to follow the endogenous class II processing pathway. Our results suggest that HER-2(884–899) might be attractive for broadly applicable vaccines and may prove useful for adoptive immunotherapy designed for breast, colorectal and pancreatic carcinomas.

Comparative analysis of the human and chicken prion protein copper binding regions at pH 6.5

Recent experimental evidence supports the hypothesis that prion proteins (PrPs) are involved in the Cu(II) metabolism. Moreover, the copper binding region has been implicated in transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, which are caused by the infectious isoform of prion proteins (PrPSc). In contrast to mammalian PrP, avian prion proteins have a considerably different N-terminal copper binding region and, most interestingly, are not able to undergo the conversion process into an infectious isoform. Therefore, we applied x-ray absorption spectroscopy to analyze in detail the Cu(II) geometry of selected synthetic human PrP Cu(II) octapeptide complexes in comparison with the corresponding chicken PrP hexapeptide complexes at pH 6.5, which mimics the conditions in the endocytic compartments of neuronal cells. Our results revealed that structure and coordination of the human PrP copper binding sites are highly conserved in the pH 6.5–7.4 range, indicating that the reported pH dependence of copper binding to PrP becomes significant at lower pH values. Furthermore, the different chicken PrP hexarepeat motifs display homologous Cu(II) coordination at sub-stoichiometric copper concentrations. Regarding the fully cation-saturated prion proteins, however, a reduced copper coordination capability is supposed for the chicken prion protein based on the observation that chicken PrP is not able to form an intra-repeat Cu(II) binding site. These results provide new insights into the prion protein structure-function relationship and the conversion process of PrP.

Coordination of three and four Cu(I) to the α− and β‐domain of vertebrate Zn‐metallothionein‐1, respectively, induces significant structural changes

Vertebrate metallothioneins are found to contain Zn(II) and variable amounts of Cu(I), in vivo, and are believed to be important for d10‐metal control. To date, structural information is available for the Zn(II) and Cd(II) forms, but not for the Cu(I) or mixed metal forms. Cu(I) binding to metallothionein‐1 has been investigated by circular dichroism, luminescence and 1H NMR using two synthetic fragments representing the α‐ and the β‐domain. The 1H NMR data and thus the structures of Zn4α metallothionein (MT)‐1 and Zn3βMT‐1 were essentially the same as those already published for the corresponding domains of native Cd7MT‐1. Cu(I) titration of the Zn(II)‐reconstituted domains provided clear evidence of stable polypeptide folds of the three Cu(I)‐containing α‐ and the four Cu(I)‐containing β‐domains. The solution structures of these two species are grossly different from the structures of the starting Zn(II) complexes. Further addition of Cu(I) to the two single domains led to the loss of defined domain structures. Upon mixing of the separately prepared aqueous three and four Cu(I) loaded α‐ and β‐domains, no interaction was seen between the two species. There was neither any indication for a net transfer of Cu(I) between the two domains nor for the formation of one large single Cu(I) cluster involving both domains.

Chemical modification allows phallotoxins and amatoxins to be used as tools in cell biology.

Summary Phallotoxins inhibit the dynamics of microfilaments in cells and lead to apoptosis. Due to poor cellular uptake these effects cannot be studied in live cells, even at millimolar toxin concentrations, nor can phalloidin be used for the elimination of tumor cells. Uptake is greatly enhanced by conjugation of phallotoxins to either lipophilic or polycationic moieties, such as oleic acid, polylysine, or Tat-peptide. These conjugates were lethally toxic for cells, e.g., mouse fibroblasts or Jurkat leukemia cells, in the micromolar range. Uptake into cells starts with the attachment of the toxin conjugates to the plasma membrane, followed by endocytosis and, in most cases, cleavage of the toxin from the carrier. Interestingly, the internalization rate of phalloidin into cells was also significantly increased by the fluorescent moiety tetramethylrhodaminyl, as well as by high molecular weight methoxy-polyethyleneglycol, two compounds unknown so far for their uptake-mediating activity. Conjugation to carriers as investigated in this work will allow the use of phallotoxins in experimental cell biology and possibly in tumor therapy. The findings obtained with phallotoxins could be applied also to the family of amatoxins, where α-amanitin, for example, when conjugated to oleic acid was more than 100-fold more toxic for cells than the native toxin. This suggests the possibility of a more general use of the moieties examined here to enhance the uptake of hydrophilic peptides, or drugs, into live cells.

Identification of contact sites in the actin-thymosin beta 4 complex by distance-dependent thiol cross-linking.

Binding sites of actin and thymosin β4 were investigated using a set of bifunctional thiol-specific reagents, which allowed the insertion of cross-linkers of defined lengths between cysteine residues of the complexed proteins. After the cross-linkers were attached to actin specifically at either Cys, Cys, or to the sulfur atom of the ATP analog adenosine 5′-O-(thiotriphosphate) (ATPS), the actin derivatives were reacted with synthetic thymosin β4 analogs containing a cysteine at one of the positions 6, 17, 28, 34, and 40. Immediate cross-linking as followed by UV spectroscopy was found for Cys of actin and Cys6 of thymosin β4, indicating that the N terminus of thymosin β4 is in close proximity (≤9.2 Å) to the C terminus of actin. In contrast, only insignificant reactivity was measured for all thymosin β4 analogs when the cross-linkers were anchored at Cys of actin. A second contact site was identified by cross-linking of Cys and Cys in thymosin β4 with the ATPS derivative bound to actin, indicating that the hexamotif of thymosin β4 (positions 17-22) is in close proximity (≤9.2 Å) to the nucleotide. The importance of the amino acids 17 and 28 in thymosin β4 for the interaction with actin was emphasized by the finding that thymosin analogs containing cysteine in these positions exhibited strongly reduced abilities to inhibit actin polymerization.

A Novel Polyarginine Containing Smac Peptide Conjugate that Mediates Cell Death in Tumor and Healthy Cells

The seven N-terminal amino acids AVPIAQK (SmacN7) of the mitochondrial protein Smac (second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase) promote caspase activation by binding specifically to inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) and blocking their inhibitory activity. SmacN7 cannot pass through the cell membrane, but to be of therapeutic use it would be essential for it to enter the cell. To achieve transmembrane transport of SmacN7 we coupled it to a novel fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labelled transmembrane transport peptide RRRRK(FITC)RRRR via ss-alanine to produce the conjugate AVPIAQKssA RRRRK(FITC)RRRR. Because IAPs are much more strongly expressed in the cytoplasm of tumor cells, we expected this conjugate to produce staining of the cytoplasm, and for this to be stronger in tumor cells than in healthy cells. Surprisingly, we found strong nuclear uptake of the Smac conjugate and of the transport peptide alone without subsequent release in both tumor cells and healthy cells from the bladder, prostate, and brain. This was accompanied by cell death. In contrast to expectations, it appears that the apoptotic effects observed do not result from the SmacN7 cargo alone.

The ternary complex of DNase I, actin and thymosin β4

We have recently described a method for identifying contact sites between actin and thymosin β4 (Tβ4) by following spectrophotometrically the extent and kinetics of distinct, thiolspecific crosslinking reactions between appropriate derivatives of the two proteins [Reichert et al. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 1301–1308]. In the present study this method was used to show that such crosslinking, which is indicative of complex formation, occurs to the same extent with the actin‐DNase I complex as with pure actin, although at a somewhat lower rate. Further evidence for the formation of the ternary complex was given by gel electrophoresis. From fluorescence spectroscopy the K D value of Tβ4 from the actin‐DNase I complex was found to be identical to that from pure actin. In line with these data, the capacity of actin for inhibiting DNase I was not affected by the addition of Tβ4. In conclusion, DNase I and Tβ4 are independent of each other in their interaction with actin, suggesting that the binding sites of thymosin β4 and DNase I on actin do not overlap. A ternary complex of DNase I, actin and Tβ4, if obtained in crystalline form, could thus provide an approach for studying the interface of Tβ4 and actin by X‐ray analysis.

Cellular uptake of cationic gadolinium-DOTA peptide conjugates with and without N-terminal myristoylation

Cellular and nuclear uptake of dual labelled conjugates could be of great value for chemotherapy and cancer diagnostics. Therefore we designed conjugates in which gadolinium (Gd)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA), a contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging and fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), a fluorescence marker were coupled to membrane translocation sequences (MTS). The MTSs we employed were the third helix of the Antennapedia homeodomain, the HIV-1 Tat peptide and the N-myristoylated HIV-1 Tat peptide. We used confocal laser scanning microscopy, fluorescence activated cell sorting, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and viability tests to examine the cellular and nuclear uptake of these conjugates into U373 glioma cells, as well as their cytotoxic effects. We found that the Antennapedia conjugate was taken up by no more than 20% of the cells. The HIV-1 Tat conjugate showed even lower uptake into less than 3% of cells. Interestingly, N-myristoylation of the HIV-1 Tat conjugate drastically improved its cellular uptake. Up to 70% of cells showed cellular and nuclear uptake of the N-myristoylated HIV-1 Tat conjugate. Conjugate cytotoxicity appears to correlate with cellular uptake.