Haskel J. Greenfield

The Secondary Products Revolution: the past, the present and the future

Abstract Andrew Sherratts (1981) model of the Secondary Products Revolution explored the effects of changes in the scale and nature of domestic animal exploitation on Old World societies. He proposed that the earliest domestic stock animals in the Near East (sheep, goat and cattle) were initially domesticated during the Neolithic for their primary products (meat, hide and bone), but that their more intensive exploitation for secondary animal products (milk, wool and traction) appeared in the Near East much later (during the Chalcolithic) and subsequently spread to surrounding regions (Europe and Asia). While the zooarchaeological evidence largely supports the model, questions have been raised about its veracity since there is evidence for pre-Chalcolithic exploitation of secondary products (e.g. ceramic lipid analyses). This paper summarizes past efforts to test the model, presents the results of recent research on the subject (e.g. artefactual, zooarchaeological and lipid analysis) and suggests directions for future research. Some of the discrepancies that have arisen between the archaeological, ceramic lipid and zooarchaeological data will be discussed.

New evidence for Late Pleistocene human exploitation of Jefferson's Ground Sloth (Megalonyx jeffersonii) from northern Ohio, USA

Abstract The nature and extent of early human exploitation of late Pleistocene mega-mammals of North America have been vigorously debated; however, direct evidence of predation has been established for a small number of taxa. Until now, evidence of butchering and human utilization of ground sloths has been limited to South America. Osteological and taphonomic analyses of one curated collection of Jeffersons Ground Sloth (Megalonyx jeffersonii) from northern Ohio, USA, have identified possible butchering marks on one femur. Historical research determined that the skeletal remains were originally recovered from a bog prior to 1915. Metric assessment of the ten skeletal elements identified this sloth as one of the largest individuals on record. SEM analysis of the left femur documented forty-one stone-tool marks, and their pattern and location indicate the filleting of leg muscles. XAD-purified bone collagen from the femur returned an AMS 14C radiocarbon age of 11,740±35 bp (13,738 to 13,435 cal. bp), which is as much as 700 years older than the calculated maximum age for Clovis. Although diminished somewhat by the lack of primary provenience data, these results offer significant evidence for late Pleistocene human exploitation of this North American taxon.

The Early Bronze Age Remains at Tell eṣ-Ṣāfi/Gath: An Interim Report

Abstract Several Early Bronze Age levels have been exposed at Tell eṣ-Ṣāfi/Gath since 2004. This report describes the results of the excavation of the EB III domestic neighbourhood on the eastern part of the site, in Area E. Its layout was common to other Early Bronze urban centres, including small, multiroom houses with a courtyard, and in a few cases also a small storage room. Occupants had access to local and long distance trade and exotic goods, used various administrative recording methods, and sacrificed valuable animals. These results are discussed in conjunction with other Early Bronze finds from the site, both from the surface survey and from excavations in other areas. Based on these data, we discuss the role of Early Bronze Age Tell eṣ-Ṣāafi/Gath from a regional perspective. The results of the excavation suggest that the site was an important EB III political and economic centre in the district.

Where are the gardens? Early Iron Age horticulture in the Thukela River Basin of South Africa

Despite substantial botanical evidence for the kinds of plants and cereals cultivated by early farming communities in southern Africa during the first millennium ad, there remains a poor understanding of where gardens would have been located. Data from archaeological sites in the Thukela Basin of South Africa (e.g. Ndondondwane) are presented in support of the hypothesis that many small plots of vegetables, cucurbits and cereals were planted within settlements as a complement to larger fields placed outside settlements.

Comment on “Holocene tsunamis from Mount Etna and the fate of Israeli Neolithic communities” by Maria Teresa Pareschi, Enzo Boschi, and Massimiliano Favalli

[1] Pareschi et al. [2007] (hereafter referred to as PBF07) suggested that the tsunami generated by the collapse of Mount Etna ca. 8,300 yr B.P., destroyed the Neolithic village of Atlit-Yam on the Israeli coast. The main issues raised by PBF07 are examined here as they relate to finds from the site, as well as from other inland Neolithic sites from the Levant. [2] Pareschi et al. [2006] first suggested that the tsunami occurred ca. 8,000–7,500 yr B.P. and later PBF07 shifted the date to 8,300 yr B.P, but no explanation for this shift was offered. If the tsunami occurred at 8,000–7,500 yr B.P., then sediments from Water Well 11 which date to 8,370– 8,210 yr B.P. (Figure 1) (but which are said to be tsunami related according to PBF07) would have actually pre-dated the assumed tsunami. (All dates are calibrated years B.P., groups of dates from the same structure were averaged with ±1sigma. Dating by E. Boaretto, Radio-carbon Dating Laboratory, Weizmann I nstitute, Israel.) Simi lar sediments from Water Well 66 dated to 8,640–8,540 yr B.P. [Galili et al., 2002] and the concentrations of fish bones and wheat from Locus 10/A dated to 8,425–8,360 yr B.P. also pre-date the tsunami (Figure 1). Alternately, if the tsunami destroyed the village in 8,300 yr B.P. (PBF07), how can the settlement exhibit an uninterrupted sequence of occupation from ca. 9,400 to 8,000 yr B.P.? [Galili et al., 2002] (Figure 1). The same argument applies to the more recent proposed Etna cone collapse of 7,590 ± 130 B.P. [Calvari and Groppelli, 1996]. As noted above, this event also post-dates many of the so-called ‘tsunami features’ identified by PBF07. The end of the occupation of Atlit-Yam ca. 8,000 BP, clearly relates to a well-documented Mediterranean sea level rise following the end of the last glaciation [Bard et al., 1996; Galili et al., 2005a]. [3] The human skeletal pathologies identified at AtlitYam are mainly associated with infectious diseases resulting from chronic health problems and dental diseases, and are not associated with natural disaster. ‘‘Fresh’’ injuries relating to trauma, which are expected to be found on victims of such a violent event, were not detected. Loss of teeth and partially burnt bones, both features specified by PBF07 as tsunami related, are in fact common in Neolithic human osteological assemblages in the region [Hershkovitz and Galili, 1990]. [4] Burial practices at Atlit-Yam were similar to those identified in other Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) sites in the Levant. Most of the human skeletal material was recovered from formally prepared graves with the deceased interred in a flexed position [Galili et al., 2005b]. Isolated bones were found throughout the site but represent primary graves disturbed in antiquity by human activities such as building, as well as more recent marine agents. Such isolated human bones are common in other submerged Pottery Neolithic (PN) sites [Galili et al., 1998], as well as terrestrial PPN sites. [5] In all features the faunal assemblage resembles that reported for neighboring submerged PN sites [Horwitz et al., 2006] and other Levantine PPN sites. It clearly differs from assemblages that have undergone sudden and violent catastrophes, where animal bones are usually found in anatomical articulation [Lyman, 1994]. About half of the animal bones bear cut marks attesting to intentional butchery, which in turn indicates that they represent food refuse and not natural mortalities. Moreover, the species and age distribution of animals does not resemble that expected for a catastrophic population, but points to selection and management of a limited range of taxa for meat production [Horwitz and Tchernov, 1987; Galili et al., 1993]. [6] The concentrations of fish bones and cereal grains, cited by PBF07 as evidence for the sudden abandonment of the site, differ in nature and each appears to have accumulated at a different time [Galili et al., 2004]. Such food concentrations have been reported from terrestrial PPN villages in the southern Levant and represent food stores that had not been consumed. [7] The use of abandoned installations and water wells as garbage pits is a common phenomenon in prehistoric sites throughout the Eastern Mediterranean (e.g., Mylouthkia, GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 35, L08311, doi:10.1029/2008GL033445, 2008 Click Here for Full Article

‘Go(a)t milk?’ New perspectives on the zooarchaeological evidence for the earliest intensification of dairying in south eastern Europe

Abstract The origins of secondary product exploitation for domestic livestock, in particular milking, is a long-standing debate in archaeology. This paper re-analyses zooarchaeological age-at-death data from the central Balkans of south eastern Europe to demonstrate that the earliest intensive milking in this region probably occurred through the exploitation of goats, and not cattle or sheep, and that they were exploited in this manner from the beginning of the Neolithic. The analyses also suggest that there is a change in cattle and sheep exploitation patterns beginning during the Eneolithic, when secondary product exploitation becomes visible in age-at-death patterns, which can be interpreted as an increased scale of secondary products exploitation. This proposal is congruent with the ceramic lipid and zooarchaeological data from the region and has larger implications for understanding and identifying the origins of milking throughout the Old World.

Domestic cattle mobility in early farming villages in southern Africa: harvest profiles and strontium (87Sr/86Sr) isotope analyses from Early Iron Age sites in the lower Thukela River Valley of South Africa

Several researchers have suggested that Early Iron Age (i.e., first millennium ad) farmers in the mountainous valleys along the southeastern seaboard of southern Africa moved their livestock in a transhumant or seasonal fashion between grazing areas in order to take advantage of differentiation in availability of pasture. Until now, there have been no data to systematically test this hypothesis. This study presents new zooarchaeological and preliminary strontium isotope data from the Early Iron Age sites of Ndondondwane, Mamba I and Wosi in the lower Thukela River Valley of South Africa. Harvest profiles of domestic stock suggest that herds were present year-round in the valley bottom, despite the advantages of a transhumant pastoral system. In order to resolve the discrepancy between the harvest profiles and the expected mobility patterns, a pilot isotopic study collected modern baseline strontium data in an effort to establish the local valley signature. The isotopic signatures from the zooarchaeological cattle specimens from the three sites show variation between sites, which is indicative of both limited and variable patterns of mobility throughout the valley. In addition, the strontium data suggest that some cattle may have been moved through social and/or economic exchanges from outside the valley.

“The Fall of the House of Flint”: A Zooarchaeological Perspective on the Decline of Chipped Stone Tools for Butchering Animals in the Bronze and Iron Ages of the Southern Levant

Abstract In recent years, it has been recognized that chipped stone tools continue to be used after the end of the Neolithic in spite of the introduction of metallurgy. However, the rate of change from a lithic to metal-based economy is affected by the type of tool and its various functions. Traditionally, this change is monitored through the frequencies and presence/absence of the various lithic tool types. These data are often negatively affected by the haphazardly collected lithic collections from Bronze and later sites. Recently, an alternative approach to monitoring the shift in technology has been proposed. Microscopic examination of butchering marks on animal bones allows the type of raw material (stone versus metal) and the type of implement (blade versus scraper) to be reconstructed. In this paper, zooarchaeological data from the southern Levant (Israel and Palestinian Authority Territory) will be used to demonstrate the nature and rate of change from a stone to a metal-based animal butchering technology during the Bronze Age. The data demonstrate that chipped stone tools use continues to be widespread during the Early Bronze Age at both urban and rural sites for the butchering of animal remains and tool making. From the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (II), there is a dramatic shift in emphasis to a metal-based technology (ca. 80 percent) corresponding with the spread of high quality tin-bronze metal knives. In the Late Bronze Age, the frequency of chipped stone tools continues to decline. The transition from stone to a metal-based butchering technology is almost complete by the Iron Age, but chipped stone tools never fully disappear in the butchering process even in subsequent periods. Chipped stone tools continue in use long after the end of the Neolithic.

Isotopic Evidence for Early Trade in Animals between Old Kingdom Egypt and Canaan

Isotope data from a sacrificial ass and several ovicaprines (sheep/goat) from Early Bronze Age household deposits at Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel provide direct evidence for the movement of domestic draught/draft and husbandry animals between Old Kingdom Egypt (during the time of the Pyramids) and Early Bronze Age III Canaan (ca. 2900–2500 BCE). Vacillating, bi-directional connections between Egypt and Canaan are known throughout the Early Bronze Age, but here we provide the first concrete evidence of early trade in animals from Egypt to Canaan.

Early Bronze Age Pottery Covered with Lime-Plaster: Technological Observations

With the emergence of urban culture in the southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age, new types of pottery and ceramic techniques appeared, among them pottery (usually combed) coated with a white material. A selection of sherds from Early Bronze strata was studied in an attempt to analyze this material. Using microscopy and various other methods, the authors were able to determine that the white material was a lime-plaster applied to the vessels after firing. The paper contends that the most likely reason for applying the lime-plaster was functional—to decrease permeability and protect the contents of the vessels.