Heather Hoffmann

Considering the Role of Conditioning in Sexual Orientation

The effects of learning on sexual orientation are rarely addressed in the literature. At the very least, such processes provide a means of elaborating upon orientation predispositions. Some aspects of our mates may inherently elicit a sexual response, but other attributes do so only after sexual experience with them. Animal research shows robust, direct effects of conditioning processes on partner preference with a few studies showing plasticity in preference for sex of partner. Descriptive research in humans suggests effects of experience on partner preference and, although experimental demonstrations of human sexual conditioning are neither numerous nor robust, sexual arousal is conditionable in women and men. With modern developments in learning theory (e.g., expectancy learning and evaluative conditioning), it seems appropriate to renew the investigation of contributions and limitations of conditioning processes to explaining how cues acquire erotic value and to attempt some integration between the sexual conditioning literature and research on sexual orientation or more generally sexual partner preference.

The Role of Classical Conditioning in Sexual Compulsivity: A Pilot Study

While a number of hypotheses exist on the origins of sexual compulsivity, few empirical studies have examined underlying mechanisms. The current research examined if sexually compulsive individuals are more sexually conditionable. Men who have sex with men (MSM) with high or low scores on the Sexual Compulsivity Scale (Kalichman et al., 1994) were presented with an odor that was (experimental group) or was not (control group) paired with brief erotic film clips. We assessed the effects of the olfactory stimulus on genital response and on a behavioral measure of risk taking. We also assessed changes in odor preference, using explicit and implicit measures, to explore the role of evaluative conditioning. There was a trend for high compulsive men to show greater conditioned genital arousal and for conditioned cues to increase sexual motivation in high but not low compulsive men. The strongest support for sexual learning was found with our behavioral measure: High compulsive men showed greater intent to engage in sexual behavior in the presence of the olfactory cues. Results also suggest that high compulsive men experienced increased implicit liking for odors paired with erotic film. Overall, the findings suggest that conditioning processes play a role in sexual compulsivity.

The relationship between oral contraceptive use and sensitivity to olfactory stimuli

The present study examined differences in olfactory sensitivity between 16 naturally cycling (NC) women and 17 women taking monophasic oral contraceptives (OCs) to six odors: lemon, peppermint, rose, musk, androstenone and androsterone. Thresholds were assessed twice for both groups of women (during the periovulatory and luteal phases of their cycles) via a forced-choice discrimination task. NC women in the periovulatory phase were significantly more sensitive to androstenone, androsterone, and musk than women taking OCs. These findings give support to odor-specific hormonal modulation of olfaction. Further, due to the social and possibly sexual nature of these odors, future work should address whether there is a relationship between decreased sensitivity to these odors and reported behavioral side effects among women taking OCs.

Field conditioning of sexual arousal in humans.

Background : Human sexual classical conditioning effects are less robust compared with those obtained in other animals. The artificiality of the laboratory environment and/or the unconditioned stimulus (US) used (e.g. watching erotic film clips as opposed to participating in sexual activity) may contribute to this discrepancy. The present experiment used a field study design to explore the conditioning of human sexual arousal. Method : Seven heterosexual couples were instructed to include a novel, neutrally preferred scent as the conditioned stimulus (CS + ) during sexual interaction and another novel scent during non-sexual coupled-interaction (e.g. watching a movie, studying together). Seven control couples used both scents during non-sexual interaction. Conducted over a 2-week period, both experimental and control couples had three sexual interactions (oral sex and/or intercourse). In addition, experimental couples had three, while the controls had six, non-sexual interactions. Genital responding to and affective preference for the odors were assessed in the laboratory before and after the experience in the men. Results : We observed significantly increased genital responding to the CS+ in the experimental relative to the control group; however, conditioned responses were not much stronger than those obtained during laboratory conditioning. Experimental males also showed a trend for decreased preference for the CS– odor. They may have learned that this odor predicted that sexual interaction with their partner would not occur. Conclusion : The present study provides another demonstration of conditioned sexual arousal in men, specifically an instance of such learning that happened in a real-world setting. It also suggests that inhibitory learning may occur, at least with the affective measure.

Devaluation of Pavlovian conditioning in the 10-day-old rat

This experiment established that for the infant rat, 10 days postpartum, a preference conditioned to an olfactory stimulus (conditioned stimulus) could be substantially-decreased-by subsequently lowering the value of the unconditioned stimulus (heat). This devaluation effect disappeared when a sufficiently long interval elapsed between the devaluation treatment and the test, despite maintained retention of the original conditioned preference over this same interval. This suggests that devaluation in infant rats does not permanently change the animal’s original representation of the unconditioned stimulus, but instead may replace it temporarily with a conflicting representation.

A Nutritional Formulation for Cognitive Performance in Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Placebo-Controlled Trial with an Open-Label Extension

Thirty-four individuals with mild cognitive impairment were randomized for 6 months to a nutraceutical formulation (NF: folate, alpha-tocopherol, B12, S-adenosyl methioinine, N-acetyl cysteine, acetyl-L-carnitine) or indistinguishable placebo, followed by a 6-month open-label extension in which all individuals received NF. The NF cohort improved in the Dementia Rating Scale (DRS; effect size >0.7) and maintained baseline performance in CLOX-1. The placebo cohort did not improve in DRS and declined in CLOX-1, but during the open-label extension improved in DRS and ceased declining in CLOX-1. These findings extend prior studies of NF efficacy for individuals without cognitive impairment and with Alzheimers disease.

Situating Human Sexual Conditioning

Conditioning is often thought of as a basic, automatic learning process that has limited applicability to higher-level human behavior. In addition, conditioning is seen as separable from, and even secondary to, “innate” processes. These ideas involve some misconceptions. The aim of this article is to provide a clearer, more refined sense of human sexual conditioning. After providing some background information and reviewing what is known from laboratory conditioning studies, human sexual conditioning is compared to sexual conditioning in nonhumans, to “innate” sexual responding, and to other types of human learning processes. Recommendations for moving forward in human sexual conditioning research are included.

Lack of Correlation of WAIS Digit Span with Clox 1 and the Dementia Rating Scale in MCI

Individuals with MCI declined in performance over 6 months in the Clock-drawing (Clox 1) and the WAIS Digit Span tests, but not in the Dementia Rating Scale (DRS). Individual performance on Clox 1 and Digit Span did not correlate after 6 months. Performance on the Digit Span Test also did not correlate with the DRS, but performance on Clox 1 correlated with the DRS. Performance in Clox 1 was, therefore, not a predictor of performance in the Digit Span Test. These findings support the use of a test battery containing the Digit Span test to detect and track cognitive decline in MCI.

Introductory Editorial to ‘The Neuroscience and Evolutionary Origins of Sexual Learning’

We (your guest editors) have established a productive professional and personal relationship through discussions of the role of experience and, in particular, basic learning processes in shaping sexuality in humans and animals. We are grateful to Harold Mouras as well as our contributors for allowing us to organize this special issue of Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology , which highlights what we believe to be an underrepresented perspective in the scientific study of sexual behavior and psychology. Craig (1912, 1918) suggested, and Zitovitch (as cited by Pavlov, 1928) as well as - more recently - Hall, Arnold and Myers (2000) have demonstrated that behaviors as straightforward as approaching food, and water require learning. Surely (human) sexuality, for which the approach is even more complicated, is shaped by experience. We offer nine papers from leading researchers in the field that we hope will inspire divergent thinking and scholarship regarding the evolution and development of sexual preferences in both humans and animals. (Published: 15 March 2012) Citation: Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology 2012, 2 : 17415 - DOI: 10.3402/snp.v2i0.17415

The Effects of Alcohol on Self-Regulation of Sexual Arousal in Sexually Compulsive Men Who Have Sex with Men

ABSTRACT Individuals who meet criteria for sexual compulsivity tend to be more likely to engage in sexual behaviors that may have negative consequences. Despite the clear public health relevance, however, little is known about the determinants of sexual compulsivity. This psychophysiological study examined self-regulation of sexual arousal in men high and low in sexual compulsivity, when sober and after alcohol consumption. A total of 43 men who have sex with men (MSM) participated and were presented with a series of erotic film clips. Two clips were presented after alcohol consumption (BAL .06); two other film clips were viewed when sober. Within alcohol conditions, one of the two films was combined with a suppression, the other with a no-suppression instruction. Genital responses were lower in the high sexual compulsivity group and higher during no-suppression conditions. The suppression instruction was not effective under sober conditions, but impacted responses after alcohol consumption. This effect was more pronounced for the low compulsivity group. The findings suggest that sexually compulsive men are less successful in inhibiting their sexual responses, but only after alcohol consumption. The findings also suggest that sexually compulsive men may be less responsive to (researcher-selected) erotic stimuli.