Heidi A. Campbell

When religion meets new media

Acknowledgements Introduction 1. Understanding Religious Communities Responses to Media 2. Religious Communities and the Internet 3. Considering How Religious Communities Construct Technology 4. History & Tradition: How History and Tradition Shape Religious Communities Approach to New Media 5. Core Values: How Community Values Construct a Basis for Responding to Technology 6. Negotiating with New Media: To Accept, Reject or Reconfigure? 7. Communal Discourse: How Religious Communities Talk about new Media 8. Studying the Religious Culturing of New Media: The Case of the Kosher Cell Phone 9. Conclusion

Who’s Got the Power? Religious Authority and the Internet

While many themes have been explored in relation to religion online—ritual, identity construction, community—what happens to religious authority and power relationships within online environments is an area in need of more detailed investigation. In order to move discussions of authority from the broad or vague to the specific, this article argues for a more refined identification of the attributes of authority at play in the online context. This involves distinguishing between different layers of authority in terms of hierarchy, structure, ideology, and text. The article also explores how different religious traditions approach questions of authority in relation to the Internet. Through a qualitative analysis of three sets of interviews with Christians, Jews, and Muslims about the Internet, we see how authority is discussed and contextualized differently in each religious tradition in terms of these four layers of authority.

Making Space for Religion in Internet Studies

This article seeks to address how religion fits into the larger domain of Internet studies and why studies of religion within computer-mediated communication (CMC) need to be given more attention. An argument is made for the need to take religion online more seriously, not just because it is an interesting phenomenon or a popular use of the Internet, but also because religion continues to be an important part of contemporary life for many people. A summary of the growth and development of religion online is presented along with an overview of how religion has been approached and studied on the Internet. This review shows what CMC studies of religion might offer in approaching research questions related to authority, identity construction, and community online. It calls for recognition of the contribution, and possibilities that underrepresented areas within interdisciplinary research, like religion, might offer Internet studies as a whole.

Challenges Created by Online Religious Networks

This article considers the challenges that online religious communities raise for religious culture. A survey of cultural changes in media, community, and religion uncovers similar structural shifts, from hierarchical structures to more open, dynamic relationship patterns in society. Examining this shift helps explain why cyber-religion and online religious communities have become emergent phenomenon. Emphasis is placed on the argument that the Internet has thrived because it has surfaced in a cultural landscape that promotes fluid yet controlled relationships over tightly bound hierarchies. Religious online communities are expressions of these changes and challenge traditional religious definitions of community. Especially problematic is the image of community as a network of relations. This article also addresses common concerns and fears of religious critics related to online communities through an analysis of current literature on these issues, along with a synthesis of research studies relating to the social use and consequences of the Internet.

How the iPhone Became Divine: New Media, Religion and the Intertextual Circulation of Meaning

This article explores the labeling of the iPhone as the ‘Jesus phone’ in order to demonstrate how religious metaphors and myth can be appropriated into popular discourse and shape the reception of a technology. We consider the intertextual nature of the relationship between religious language, imagery and technology and demonstrate how this creates a unique interaction between technology fans and bloggers, news media and even corporate advertising. Our analysis of the ‘Jesus phone’ clarifies how different groups may appropriate the language and imagery of another to communicate very different meanings and intentions. Intertextuality serves as a framework to unpack the deployment of religion to frame technology and meanings communicated. We also reflect on how religious language may communicate both positive and negative aspects of a technology and instigate an unintentional trajectory in popular discourse as it is employed by different audiences, both online and offline.

Religious Authority and the Blogosphere

It is often argued that the internet poses a threat to traditional forms of authority. Within studies of religion online claims have also been made that the internet is affecting religious authority online, but little substantive work has backed up these claims. This paper argues for an approach to authority within online studies which looks separately at authority: roles, structures, beliefs/ideologies and texts. This approach is applied to a thematic analysis of 100 religious blogs and demonstrates that religious bloggers use their blogs to frame authority in ways that may more often affirm than challenge traditional sources of authority.

Considering spiritual dimensions within computer-mediated communication studies:

This article explores how the internet is being studied and conceived of as a sacramental space. The internet as sacramental space demonstrates how religious users see the internet as a viable place for presenting their beliefs and practices. In order to understand this model, several other dominant conceptions of the internet are offered: information space, a common mental geography, an identity workshop and a social space. Each of these accents a specific use of the internet. The internet as sacramental space is further investigated by considering several typologies of online spiritual communities emerging from a recent online community study. Each typology highlights how the internet as sacramental space encompasses traits of the previously stated models and illustrates how the internet is used as a spiritual tool, religious identity, a space for personal spiritual pursuits and a social spiritual support sphere. A survey of current CMC research on religion is also presented.

Creating digital enclaves: Negotiation of the internet among bounded religious communities

This article examines the motivation behind bounded groups’ creation of digital enclaves online. Through in-depth interviews with 19 webmasters and staff of selected Israeli Orthodox websites three critical areas of negotiation are explored: (1) social control; (2) sources of authority; and (3) community boundaries. Examining these tensions illuminates a detailed process of self-evaluation which leads religious stakeholders and internet entrepreneurs to form these digital enclaves in order to negotiate the core beliefs and constraints of their offline communities online. These offer spaces of safety for members within the risk-laden tracts of the internet. Examining the tensions accompanying the emergence of these religious websites elucidates community affordances as well as the challenges to the authority that integration of new media poses to closed groups and societies.

Religion and the Internet: A microcosm for studying Internet trends and implications

This article argues that paying close attention to key findings within the study of religion and the Internet, a subfield of Internet Studies, can enhance our understanding and discussion of the larger social and cultural shifts at work within networked society. Through a critical overview of research on religion online, five central research areas emerge related to social practices, online–offline connections, community, identity, and authority online. It is also argued that observations about these themes not only point to specific trends within religious practice online, but also mirror concerns and findings within other areas of Internet Studies. Thus, studying religion on the Internet provides an important microcosm for investigating Internet Studies’ contribution in a wide range of contexts in our contemporary social world.

INTRODUCTION: Rethinking the online–offline connection in the study of religion online

In one of the first edited collections addressing existential and philosophical perspectives on computer-mediated communication, Ess (1996, p. 9) stated, ‘If CMC only partially effects the revolutionary transformations of values and social structures envisioned by its enthusiasts, then religion – as humanity’s oldest expression of values and community – is likely both to impact and to be impacted by these transformations’. After a decade and a half of published research on religion online, we are finally able to begin to make some educated claims about the impact of the Internet on religious culture and social forms. In the initial waves of religion and Internet research, focus was often on how the Internet would drastically change religious practice and ideology, due to the growth of religious communities online and the integration of religious rituals and practices into digital environments. Much attention was given to the plurality of religious expressions online, particularly of fringe or secretive religious groups that were now able to achieve a public platform making them more visible (Hennerby & Dawson 1999; Fernback 2002). In scholarship concerning how mainstream religions such as Christianity and Islam were responding to new media technologies, research focused on the fact that the Internet made it possible to reach out to new groups, while also challenging offline institutional control over traditional practices and theology (O’Leary & Brasher 1996; Bunt 2000). However, in the past decade, as the Internet has increasingly become embedded in the everyday lives of many individuals, facilitating their social, economic and work-related tasks, researchers’ attention has been drawn to investigating the connection between online and offline religious behaviours and beliefs. No longer are the online and offline seen as completely distinct fields of practice, as for many they are integrated spheres of interaction: the Internet constitutes the space where individuals and groups live out their social and spiritual lives, and offline boundaries and relations often inform the online sphere. At the heart of the intersection of the online–offline social world is the important issue of the relationship between new media technology and religious change.