Helen McKernan

In Search of ‘Fluid Security’: The Outline of a Concept

This chapter introduces the key conceptual framework of the book and sets out the problems faced by temporary migrants in Australia that were revealed through the case studies carried out during the course of our research. We consider contemporary migration patterns at both a global and regional level (in the Asia-Pacific region) with reference to key literature on migrant transnationalism, labour mobility and the global market in tertiary education. The discussion explores the tension between mobility and security by considering the nexus of human (in)security, human rights and border control, with reference also to state practices that create insecurity by criminalising some border crossing activities and creating conditions conducive to the exploitation, marginalisation and victimisation of non-citizens.

Samoan-Born New Zealanders as Trans-Tasman Denizens

The traditional Polynesian skill of navigating long sea journeys is legendary. From a Polynesian perspective, the precolonial Pacific was a ‘sea of islands’ within which people moved freely and maintained active social links and trading networks (Lee 2009, citing Hau’ofa 1993a). In effect, the ocean served to connect, rather than divide, the region’s inhabitants. The Samoan word malaga, which is usually translated as ‘travel’ or ‘movement’, has the connotation of moving back and forth (Lilomaiava-Doktor 2009a) in a manner that is now recognised in migration scholarship as circular migration. Malaga was originally undertaken to fulfil fa’alavelave (obligations) to aiga (kin groups) in order to obtain resources to use as gifts to be presented at births, marriages and funerals (Lilomaiava-Doktor 2009a). While the reasons for international travel among Samoans have expanded, contemporary belief systems still embody explicit cultural understandings of the meaning and purpose of mobility that defy neat legal categorisation as either temporary or permanent. As Lilomaiava-Doktor (2009b, p. 64) explains: ‘For Samoans, migration and circulation are not the disparate processes that such categorisation implies. They are part of the dialectic and a different conception of place.’ This different conception of place conceives of malaga in terms of ‘reciprocal flows, irrespective of purpose or duration’.

Tongan Seasonal Workers: Permanent Temporariness

Migrant transnationalism has dominated the Tongan national experience since the 1960s, when the Pacific Islanders’ long history of interisland mobility transformed to become a form of mobility more closely tied to the nation-state and the pursuit of individual, familial and national survival and prosperity (see Pyke et al. 2012). An important feature of the Tongan diaspora is that it is largely a ‘labour diaspora’ (Pyke et al. 2012, p. 5), with temporary and permanent overseas employment opportunities being the predominant drivers of migration (Pyke et al. 2012). However, kinship ties are also important in this diaspora, and they are maintained via the financial ties of remittances sent home by permanent and temporary Tongan migrants (see Lee 2007).

Indonesian Temporary Migrants: Australia as First Preference or Last Resort?

Large-scale emigrations do not occur in a vacuum but are related to the social and political contexts of the individuals who leave their country of origin for short or long periods. A decade and a half ago, Indonesia was in the grip of political upheaval and economic crisis that manifested as interreligious violence and social instability in many parts of the Indonesian archipelago. The Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s in part precipitated this period of instability and violence, with large numbers of workers losing their jobs and the Chinese minority targeted as a scapegoat in some regions. Aside from the economic crisis, other more deeply rooted factors in Indonesia’s history were also contributing influences. The authoritarian oligarchies of Sukarno and General Suharto from 1968 to 1998 continue to have a significant impact on Indonesia’s political culture, though in new, moderated forms (Buehler 2014). The transition to democratic governance is evident in political institutions and the rule of law, but the memories of military dictatorship remain potent for many Indonesians. After General Suharto lost power, Indonesia experienced a period of instability marked by sectarian violence and the rise of radical Muslim groups (Ford and Pepinsky 2014; Pisani 2014; Barton 2001; McGregor 2007). The first direct presidential election was held in 2004, resulting in the election of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, who was re-elected in 2009. On 20 October 2014, President Joko Widodo was sworn in, representing a departure from rule by Indonesia’s dynastic elite. In contrast to previous political leaders, Widodo is a provincial businessman who ran a furniture business until his rise to prominence as mayor of Surakarta (Solo) and, subsequently, governor of Jakarta (Lindsey 2014).

The Decision to Leave: Processes That Drive Mobility

In this chapter we use data from all four case studies to discuss the processes that drive mobility between Australia and the case study countries, focusing on factors that relate to the search for human security. The findings are initially presented separately for each case study, and then general themes are drawn together in the conclusion.

Processes of Reception and Inclusion in Australia

In this chapter we focus on the themes that emerged from our interviews with mobile communities about their experiences after arrival in Australia, particularly processes of reception and inclusion. The findings are initially discussed within each of the case studies. The chapter concludes with an overview that identifies common themes and contrasts between the groups.

Reaching Australia: Processes That Mediate Mobility

In this chapter we combine the research data from all four case studies to consider the processes that facilitate or hinder temporary migration into Australia and the capacity to stay. The chapter will provide rich qualitative data on the impact of Australian immigration policies on mobile populations and the roles played by a range of actors and by systemic factors that translate, facilitate or impede the operation of these policies. Processes that mediate mobility are discussed initially in relation to each of the case studies, and then common themes and contrasts across the case studies are drawn out in the conclusion.

Chinese Students: Isolated Global Citizens

China’s rapid development over the past 30 years has underpinned its emergence not only as a key player in the globalised world but arguably also as the engine room of globalisation in regard to the mobility of goods, services and people. Central to China’s development and globalisation has been the pipeline of Chinese national students exported in the mass tertiary education market. The efficient and effective transformation of student exports into transnational earning actors serves several purposes at home and abroad in relation to family structure, prestige and overcoming gaps in local education provision. International Chinese students provide a direct match for the market needs of western democracies, who increasingly rely on the income provided by international students to make a significant contribution to the funding of universities. While there has seemingly been an alignment between supply and demand in international education, the transformative possibilities for Chinese international students have proven to be rather complicated and precarious across four crucial domains of security.

Trans-Tasman denizens: Human rights and human (in)security among New Zealand citizens of Samoan origin in Australia

Border crossing is increasingly adopted as a security-seeking strategy by individuals, families and communities, while the nation state struggles to reconcile demands for mobility with border control politics. This article reports findings on Samoan-born Australian residents from a research project that examines aspects of temporary migration in the Asia Pacific. In the early stages of the fieldwork, the majority of Samoan-born residents encountered by the researchers were found to have arrived in Australia as New Zealand citizens who were entitled to stay indefinitely on Special Category Visas. This seemingly secure legal status seemed to place this group outside the research parameters. However, it became apparent that entry via a privileged migration channel did not necessarily ensure that human security needs were met. Looking at this group revealed much about the contrasts between temporary and permanent immigration status. Identified sources of insecurity arising from the group’s long-term ‘denizen’ status included socio-economic marginality, the pressures of maintaining transnational families, and concerns about young people and the law. While human security provides the conceptual starting point for the article and the wider research, the findings illustrate the importance of mobilising both citizenship rights and human rights to support the security-seeking projects of mobile populations.