Helen Nichol

Measuring iron in the brain using quantitative susceptibility mapping and X-ray fluorescence imaging

Measuring iron content in the brain has important implications for a number of neurodegenerative diseases. Quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM), derived from magnetic resonance images, has been used to measure total iron content in vivo and in post mortem brain. In this paper, we show how magnetic susceptibility from QSM correlates with total iron content measured by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging and by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS). The relationship between susceptibility and ferritin iron was estimated at 1.10±0.08 ppb susceptibility per μg iron/g wet tissue, similar to that of iron in fixed (frozen/thawed) cadaveric brain and previously published data from unfixed brains. We conclude that magnetic susceptibility can provide a direct and reliable quantitative measurement of iron content and that it can be used clinically at least in regions with high iron content.

Mapping metals in Parkinson's and normal brain using rapid-scanning x-ray fluorescence

Rapid-scanning x-ray fluorescence (RS-XRF) is a synchrotron technology that maps multiple metals in tissues by employing unique hardware and software to increase scanning speed. RS-XRF was validated by mapping and quantifying iron, zinc and copper in brain slices from Parkinsons disease (PD) and unaffected subjects. Regions and structures in the brain were readily identified by their metal complement and each metal had a unique distribution. Many zinc-rich brain regions were low in iron and vice versa. The location and amount of iron in brain regions known to be affected in PD agreed with analyses using other methods. Sample preparation is simple and standard formalin-fixed autopsy slices are suitable. RS-XRF can simultaneously and non-destructively map and quantify multiple metals and holds great promise to reveal metal pathologies associated with PD and other neurodegenerative diseases as well as diseases of metal metabolism.

Brain iron detected by SWI high pass filtered phase calibrated with synchrotron X-ray fluorescence.

To test the ability of susceptibility weighted images (SWI) and high pass filtered phase images to localize and quantify brain iron.

Iron, Copper, and Zinc Distribution of the Cerebellum

Synchrotron rapid-scanning X-ray fluorescence (RS-XRF) is employed for the first time to simultaneously map iron, copper, and zinc in the normal cerebellum. The cerebellum is a major repository of metals that are essential to normal function. Therefore, mapping the normal metal distribution is an important first step towards understanding how multiple metals may induce oxidative damage, protein aggregation, and neurotoxicity leading to cerebellar degeneration in a wide range of diseases. We found that cerebellar white and grey matter could be sharply defined based upon the unique metal content of each region. The dentate nucleus was particularly metal-rich with copper localized to the periphery and iron and zinc abundant centrally. We discuss how RS-XRF metal mapping in the normal brain may yield important clues to the mechanisms of degeneration in the dentate nucleus.

Ferric iron chelation lowers brain iron levels after intracerebral hemorrhage in rats but does not improve outcome.

Iron-mediated free radical damage contributes to secondary damage after intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Iron is released from heme after hemoglobin breakdown and accumulates in the parenchyma over days and then persists in the brain for months (e.g., hemosiderin). This non-heme iron has been linked to cerebral edema and cell death. Deferoxamine, a ferric iron chelator, has been shown to mitigate iron-mediated damage, but results vary with less protection in the collagenase model of ICH. This study used rapid-scanning X-ray fluorescence (RS-XRF), a synchrotron-based imaging technique, to spatially map total iron and other elements (zinc, calcium and sulfur) at three survival times after collagenase-induced ICH in rats. Total iron was compared to levels of non-heme iron determined by a Ferrozine-based spectrophotometry assay in separate animals. Finally, using RS-XRF we measured iron levels in ICH rats treated with deferoxamine versus saline. The non-heme iron assay showed elevations in injured striatum at 3 days and 4 weeks post-ICH, but not at 1 day. RS-XRF also detected significantly increased iron levels at comparable times, especially notable in the peri-hematoma zone. Changes in other elements were observed in some animals, but these were inconsistent among animals. Deferoxamine diminished total parenchymal iron levels but did not attenuate neurological deficits or lesion volume at 7 days. In summary, ICH significantly increased non-heme and total iron levels. We evaluated the latter and found it to be significantly lowered by deferoxamine, but its failure to attenuate injury or functional impairment in this model raises concern about successful translation to patients.

Mapping brain metals to evaluate therapies for neurodegenerative disease.

The brain is rich in metals and has a high metabolic rate, making it acutely vulnerable to the toxic effects of endogenously produced free radicals. The abundant metals, iron and copper, transfer single electrons as they cycle between their reduced (Fe2+, Cu1+) and oxidized (Fe3+, Cu2+) states making them powerful catalysts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Even redox inert zinc, if present in excess, can trigger ROS production indirectly by altering mitochondrial function. While metal chelators seem to improve the clinical outcome of several neurodegenerative diseases, their mechanisms of action remain obscure and the effects of long‐term use are largely unknown. Most chelators are not specific to a single metal and could alter the distribution of multiple metals in the brain, leading to unexpected consequences over the long‐term. We show here how X‐ray fluorescence will be a valuable tool to examine the effect of chelators on the distribution and amount of metals in the brain.

X-ray absorption spectroscopy at the sulfur K-edge: a new tool to investigate the biochemical mechanisms of neurodegeneration.

Sulfur containing molecules such as thiols, disulfides, sulfoxides, sulfonic acids, and sulfates may contribute to neurodegenerative processes. However, previous study in this field has been limited by the lack of in situ analytical techniques. This limitation may now be largely overcome following the development of synchrotron radiation X-ray absorption spectroscopy at the sulfur K-edge, which has been validated as a novel tool to investigate and image the speciation of sulfur in situ. In this investigation, we build the foundation required for future application of this technique to study and image the speciation of sulfur in situ within brain tissue. This study has determined the effect of sample preparation and fixation methods on the speciation of sulfur in thin sections of rat brain tissue, determined the speciation of sulfur within specific brain regions (brain stem and cerebellum), and identified sulfur specific markers of peroxidative stress following metal catalyzed reactive oxygen species production. X-ray absorption spectroscopy at the sulfur K-edge is now poised for an exciting new range of applications to study thiol redox, methionine oxidation, and the role of taurine and sulfatides during neurodegeneration.

Prolonged therapeutic hypothermia does not adversely impact neuroplasticity after global ischemia in rats

Hypothermia improves clinical outcome after cardiac arrest in adults. Animal data show that a day or more of cooling optimally reduces edema and tissue injury after cerebral ischemia, especially after longer intervention delays. Lengthy treatments, however, may inhibit repair processes (e.g., synaptogenesis). Thus, we evaluated whether unilateral brain hypothermia (∼33°C) affects neuroplasticity in the rat 2-vessel occlusion model. In the first experiment, we cooled starting 1 hour after ischemia for 2, 4, or 7 days. Another group was cooled for 2 days starting 48 hours after ischemia. One group remained normothermic throughout. All hypothermia treatments started 1 hour after ischemia equally reduced hippocampal CA1 injury in the cooled hemisphere compared with the normothermic side and the normothermic group. Cooling only on days 3 and 4 was not beneficial. Importantly, no treatment influenced neurogenesis (Ki67/Doublecortin (DCX) staining), synapse formation (synaptophysin), or brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) immunohistochemistry. A second experiment confirmed that BDNF levels (ELISA) were equivalent in normothermic and 7-day cooled rats. Last, we measured zinc (Zn), which is important in plasticity, with X-ray fluorescence imaging in normothermic and 7-day cooled rats. Hypothermia did not alter the postischemic distribution of Zn within the hippocampus. In summary, cooling significantly mitigates injury without compromising neuroplasticity.

Innate Immune Responses of Drosophila melanogaster Are Altered by Spaceflight

Alterations and impairment of immune responses in humans present a health risk for space exploration missions. The molecular mechanisms underpinning innate immune defense can be confounded by the complexity of the acquired immune system of humans. Drosophila (fruit fly) innate immunity is simpler, and shares many similarities with human innate immunity at the level of molecular and genetic pathways. The goals of this study were to elucidate fundamental immune processes in Drosophila affected by spaceflight and to measure host-pathogen responses post-flight. Five containers, each containing ten female and five male fruit flies, were housed and bred on the space shuttle (average orbit altitude of 330.35 km) for 12 days and 18.5 hours. A new generation of flies was reared in microgravity. In larvae, the immune system was examined by analyzing plasmatocyte number and activity in culture. In adults, the induced immune responses were analyzed by bacterial clearance and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) of selected genes following infection with E. coli. The RNA levels of relevant immune pathway genes were determined in both larvae and adults by microarray analysis. The ability of larval plasmatocytes to phagocytose E. coli in culture was attenuated following spaceflight, and in parallel, the expression of genes involved in cell maturation was downregulated. In addition, the level of constitutive expression of pattern recognition receptors and opsonins that specifically recognize bacteria, and of lysozymes, antimicrobial peptide (AMP) pathway and immune stress genes, hallmarks of humoral immunity, were also reduced in larvae. In adults, the efficiency of bacterial clearance measured in vivo following a systemic infection with E. coli post-flight, remained robust. We show that spaceflight altered both cellular and humoral immune responses in Drosophila and that the disruption occurs at multiple interacting pathways.

A Comparison of Rapid-Scanning X-Ray Fluorescence Mapping And Magnetic Resonance Imaging to Localize Brain Iron Distribution

The clinical diagnosis of many neurodegenerative disorders relies primarily or exclusively on observed behaviors rather than measurable physical tests. One of the hallmarks of Alzheimer disease (AD) is the presence of amyloid-containing plaques associated with deposits of iron, copper and/or zinc. Work in other laboratories has shown that iron-rich plaques can be seen in the mouse brain in vivo with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) using a high-field strength magnet but this iron cannot be visualized in humans using clinical magnets. To improve the interpretation of MRI, we correlated iron accumulation visualized by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, an element-specific technique with T1, T2, and susceptibility weighted MR (SWI) in a mouse model of AD. We show that SWI best shows areas of increased iron accumulation when compared to standard sequences.