Hélène Salmon

Matrix architecture defines the preferential localization and migration of T cells into the stroma of human lung tumors.

Appropriate localization and migration of T cells is a prerequisite for antitumor immune surveillance. Studies using fixed tumor samples from human patients have shown that T cells accumulate more efficiently in the stroma than in tumor islets, but the mechanisms by which this occurs are unknown. By combining immunostaining and real-time imaging in viable slices of human lung tumors, we revealed that the density and the orientation of the stromal extracellular matrix likely play key roles in controlling the migration of T cells. Active T cell motility, dependent on chemokines but not on β1 or β2 integrins, was observed in loose fibronectin and collagen regions, whereas T cells migrated poorly in dense matrix areas. Aligned fibers in perivascular regions and around tumor epithelial cell regions dictated the migratory trajectory of T cells and restricted them from entering tumor islets. Consistently, matrix reduction with collagenase increased the ability of T cells to contact cancer cells. Thus, the stromal extracellular matrix influences antitumor immunity by controlling the positioning and migration of T cells. Understanding the mechanisms by which this collagen network is generated has the potential to aid in the development of new therapeutics.

BRAF-V600E expression in precursor versus differentiated dendritic cells defines clinically distinct LCH risk groups

The Rockefeller University Press

Expansion and Activation of CD103+ Dendritic Cell Progenitors at the Tumor Site Enhances Tumor Responses to Therapeutic PD-L1 and BRAF Inhibition

30.00 J. Exp. Med. 2014 Vol. 211 No. 4 669-683 www.jem.org/cgi/doi/10.1084/jem.20130977 669 Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is characterized by inflammatory lesions that include pathological langerin+ DCs. LCH has pleotropic clinical presentations ranging from single lesions cured by curettage to potentially fatal multisystem disease. The first descriptions of LCH, including Hand-Schüller-Christian disease and Letter-Siwe disease, were based on anatomical location and extent of the lesions (Arceci, 1999). The diagnosis of high-risk LCH, defined by involvement of “risk organs” which include BM, liver, and spleen, conferred mortality rates >20%, where patients with disease limited to non-risk organs (low-risk LCH) had nearly 100% survival, CORRESPONDENCE Carl Allen: ceallen@txch.org OR Miriam Merad: miriam.merad@mssm.edu

The miR-126-VEGFR2 axis controls the innate response to pathogen-associated nucleic acids

Large numbers of melanoma lesions develop resistance to targeted inhibition of mutant BRAF or fail to respond to checkpoint blockade. We explored whether modulation of intratumoral antigen-presenting cells (APCs) could increase responses to these therapies. Using mouse melanoma models, we found that CD103(+) dendritic cells (DCs) were the only APCs transporting intact antigens to the lymph nodes and priming tumor-specific CD8(+) T cells. CD103(+) DCs were required to promote anti-tumoral effects upon blockade of the checkpoint ligand PD-L1; however, PD-L1 inhibition only led to partial responses. Systemic administration of the growth factor FLT3L followed by intratumoral poly I:C injections expanded and activated CD103(+) DC progenitors in the tumor, enhancing responses to BRAF and PD-L1 blockade and protecting mice from tumor rechallenge. Thus, the paucity of activated CD103(+) DCs in tumors limits checkpoint-blockade efficacy and combined FLT3L and poly I:C therapy can enhance tumor responses to checkpoint and BRAF blockade.

CDKN1A regulates Langerhans cell survival and promotes Treg cell generation upon exposure to ionizing irradiation

miR-126 is a microRNA expressed predominately by endothelial cells and controls angiogenesis. We found miR-126 was required for the innate response to pathogen-associated nucleic acids and that miR-126-deficient mice had greater susceptibility to infection with pseudotyped HIV. Profiling of miRNA indicated that miR-126 had high and specific expression by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). Moreover, miR-126 controlled the survival and function of pDCs and regulated the expression of genes encoding molecules involved in the innate response, including Tlr7, Tlr9 and Nfkb1, as well as Kdr, which encodes the growth factor receptor VEGFR2. Deletion of Kdr in DCs resulted in reduced production of type I interferon, which supports the proposal of a role for VEGFR2 in miR-126 regulation of pDCs. Our studies identify the miR-126–VEGFR2 axis as an important regulator of the innate response that operates through multiscale control of pDCs.

Positive and negative influence of the matrix architecture on antitumor immune surveillance

Treatment with ionizing radiation (IR) can lead to the accumulation of tumor-infiltrating regulatory T cells (Treg cells) and subsequent resistance of tumors to radiotherapy. Here we focused on the contribution of the epidermal mononuclear phagocytes Langerhans cells (LCs) to this phenomenon because of their ability to resist depletion by high-dose IR. We found that LCs resisted apoptosis and rapidly repaired DNA damage after exposure to IR. In particular, we found that the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor CDKN1A (p21) was overexpressed in LCs and that Cdkn1a−/− LCs underwent apoptosis and accumulated DNA damage following IR treatment. Wild-type LCs upregulated major histocompatibility complex class II molecules, migrated to the draining lymph nodes and induced an increase in Treg cell numbers upon exposure to IR, but Cdkn1a−/− LCs did not. Our findings suggest a means for manipulating the resistance of LCs to IR to enhance the response of cutaneous tumors to radiotherapy.Treatment with ionizing irradiation (IR) may lead to accumulation of tumor-infiltrating T regulatory (Treg) cells and subsequent tumor resistance to radiotherapy. Here we focused on the contribution of the epidermal mononuclear phagocytes, Langerhans cells (LCs), to this phenomenon because of their ability to resist depletion by high-dose IR. We found that LCs resisted apoptosis and rapidly repaired DNA damage post-IR. Particularly, we found that CDKN1A (cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A, also known as p21) was overexpressed in LCs, and that Cdkn1a−/− LCs underwent apoptosis and accumulated DNA damage following IR treatment. Wild-type, but not Cdkn1a−/−, LCs up-regulated major histocompatibility complex class II molecules, migrated to the draining lymph nodes and increased Treg cell numbers upon exposure to IR. These findings suggest a means for manipulating LC IR-resistance to increase cutaneous tumor response to radiotherapy.

Within tumors, interactions between T cells and tumor cells are impeded by the extracellular matrix

The migration of T cells and access to tumor antigens is of utmost importance for the induction of protective anti-tumor immunity. Once having entered a malignant site, T cells encounter a complex environment composed of non-tumor cells along with the extracellular matrix (ECM). It is now well accepted that a deregulated ECM favors tumor progression and metastasis. Recent progress in imaging technologies has also highlighted the impact of the matrix architecture found in solid tumor on immune cells and especially T cells. In this review, we argue that the ability of T cells to mount an antitumor response is dependent on the matrix structure, more precisely on the balance between pro-migratory reticular fiber networks and unfavorable migration zones composed of dense and aligned ECM structures. Thus, the matrix architecture, that has long been considered to merely provide the structural framework of connective tissues, can play a key role in facilitating or suppressing the antitumor immune surveillance. A new challenge in cancer therapy will be to develop approaches aimed at altering the architecture of the tumor stroma, rendering it more permissive to antitumor T cells.

Notch Signaling Facilitates In Vitro Generation of Cross-Presenting Classical Dendritic Cells

In principle, T cells can recognize and kill cancer cells. However, tumors have the ability to escape T cell attack. By imaging the dynamic behavior of T cells in human lung tumor explants, we have recently established the importance of the extracellular matrix in limiting access of T cells to tumor cells.

RAF/MEK/extracellular signal–related kinase pathway suppresses dendritic cell migration and traps dendritic cells in Langerhans cell histiocytosis lesions

Summary The IRF8-dependent subset of classical dendritic cells (cDCs), termed cDC1, is important for cross-priming cytotoxic T cell responses against pathogens and tumors. Culture of hematopoietic progenitors with DC growth factor FLT3 ligand (FLT3L) yields very few cDC1s (in humans) or only immature “cDC1-like” cells (in the mouse). We report that OP9 stromal cells expressing the Notch ligand Delta-like 1 (OP9-DL1) optimize FLT3L-driven development of cDC1s from murine immortalized progenitors and primary bone marrow cells. Co-culture with OP9-DL1 induced IRF8-dependent cDC1s with a phenotype (CD103+ Dec205+ CD8α+) and expression profile resembling primary splenic cDC1s. OP9-DL1-induced cDC1s showed preferential migration toward CCR7 ligands in vitro and superior T cell cross-priming and antitumor vaccination in vivo. Co-culture with OP9-DL1 also greatly increased the yield of IRF8-dependent CD141+ cDC1s from human bone marrow progenitors cultured with FLT3L. Thus, Notch signaling optimizes cDC generation in vitro and yields authentic cDC1s for functional studies and translational applications.

Abstract B015: Expansion and activation of CD103+ dendritic cell progenitors at the tumor site transform tumor response to PD-L1 and BRAF inhibition

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is an inflammatory myeloid neoplasia characterized by granulomatous lesions containing pathological CD207+ dendritic cells (DCs) with constitutively activated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway signaling. Approximately 60% of LCH patients harbor somatic BRAFV600E mutations localizing to CD207+ DCs within lesions. However, the mechanisms driving BRAFV600E+ LCH cell accumulation in lesions remain unknown. Here we show that sustained extracellular signal–related kinase activity induced by BRAFV600E inhibits C-C motif chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7)–mediated DC migration, trapping DCs in tissue lesions. Additionally, BRAFV600E increases expression of BCL2-like protein 1 (BCL2L1) in DCs, resulting in resistance to apoptosis. Pharmacological MAPK inhibition restores migration and apoptosis potential in a mouse LCH model, as well as in primary human LCH cells. We also demonstrate that MEK inhibitor-loaded nanoparticles have the capacity to concentrate drug delivery to phagocytic cells, significantly reducing off-target toxicity. Collectively, our results indicate that MAPK tightly suppresses DC migration and augments DC survival, rendering DCs in LCH lesions trapped and resistant to cell death.