Helle Smidt Mogensen

Estimating the probability of allelic drop-out of STR alleles in forensic genetics

In crime cases with available DNA evidence, the amount of DNA is often sparse due to the setting of the crime. In such cases, allelic drop-out of one or more true alleles in STR typing is possible. We present a statistical model for estimating the per locus and overall probability of allelic drop-out using the results of all STR loci in the case sample as reference. The methodology of logistic regression is appropriate for this analysis, and we demonstrate how to incorporate this in a forensic genetic framework.

Second-generation sequencing of forensic STRs using the Ion Torrent™ HID STR 10-plex and the Ion PGM™

Second-generation sequencing (SGS) using Roche/454 and Illumina platforms has proved capable of sequencing the majority of the key forensic genetic STR systems. Given that Roche has announced that the 454 platforms will no longer be supported from 2015, focus should now be shifted to competing SGS platforms, such as the MiSeq (Illumina) and the Ion Personal Genome Machine (Ion PGM™; Thermo Fisher). There are currently several challenges faced with amplicon-based SGS STR typing in forensic genetics, including current lengths of amplicons for CE-typing and lack of uniform data analysis between laboratories. Thermo Fisher has designed a human identification (HID) short tandem repeat (STR) 10-plex panel including amelogenin, CSF1PO, D16S539, D3S1358, D5S818, D7S820, D8S1179, TH01, TPOX and vWA, where the primers have been designed specifically for the purpose of SGS and the data analysis is supported by Ion Torrent™ software. Hence, the combination of the STR 10-plex and the Ion PGM™ represents the first fully integrated SGS STR typing solution from PCR to data analysis. In this study, four experiments were performed to evaluate the alpha-version of the STR 10-plex: (1) typing of control samples; (2) analysis of sensitivity; (3) typing of mixtures; and (4) typing of biological crime case samples. Full profiles and concordant results between replicate SGS runs and CE-typing were observed for all control samples. Full profiles were seen with DNA input down to 50 pg, with the exception of a single locus drop-out in one of the 100 pg dilutions. Mixtures were easily deconvoluted down to 20:1, although alleles from the minor contributor had to be identified manually as some signals were not called by the Ion Torrent™ software. Interestingly, full profiles were obtained for all biological samples from real crime and identification cases, in which only partial profiles were obtained with PCR-CE assays. In conclusion, the Ion Torrent™ HID STR 10-plex panel offers an all-in-one solution from amplification of STRs and amelogenin, and sequencing to data analysis.

Evaluation of the Ion Torrent™ HID SNP 169-plex: A SNP typing assay developed for human identification by second generation sequencing

The Ion Torrent™ HID SNP assay amplified 136 autosomal SNPs and 33 Y-chromosome markers in one PCR and the markers were subsequently typed using the Ion PGM™ second generation sequencing platform. A total of 51 of the autosomal SNPs were selected from the SNPforID panel that is routinely used in our ISO 17025 accredited laboratory. Concordance between the Ion Torrent™ HID SNP assay and the SNPforID assay was tested by typing 44 Iraqis twice with the Ion Torrent™ HID SNP assay. The same samples were previously typed with the SNPforID assay and the Y-chromosome haplogroups of the individuals were previously identified by typing 45 Y-chromosome SNPs. Full concordance between the assays were obtained except for the SNP genotypes of two SNPs. These SNPs were among the eight SNPs (rs2399332, rs1029047, rs10776839, rs4530059, rs8037429, rs430046, rs1031825 and rs1523537) with inconsistent allele balance among samples. These SNPs should be excluded from the panel. The optimal amount of DNA in the PCR seemed to be ≥0.5ng. Allele drop-outs were rare and only seen in experiments with <0.5ng input DNA and with a coverage of <50reads. No allele drop-in was observed. The great majority of the heterozygote allele balances were between 0.6 and 1.6, which is comparable to the heterozygote balances of STRs typed with PCR-CE. The number of reads with base calls that differed from the genotype call was typically less than five. This allowed detection of 1:100 mixtures with a high degree of certainty in experiments with a high total depth of coverage. In conclusion, the Ion PGM™ is a very promising platform for forensic genetics. However, the secondary sequence analysis software made wrong genotype calls from correctly sequenced alleles. These types of errors must be corrected before the platform can be used in case work. Furthermore, the sequence analysis software should be further developed and include quality settings for each SNP based on validation studies.

Amyloid beta-peptide(25-35) changes [Ca2+] in hippocampal neurons.

Insoluble aggregates of the amyloid beta-peptide (A beta) is a major constituent of senile plaques found in brains of Alzheimer disease (AD) patients. The detrimental effects of aggregated A beta is associated with an increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i). We examined the effects of A beta(25-35) on [Ca2+]i and intracellular H+ concentration ([H+]i) in single hippocampal neurons by real time fluorescence imaging using the Ca(2+)- and H(+)-specific ratio dyes, indo-1 and SNARF-1. Incubation of these cultures with A beta(25-35) for 3-12 days in vitro increased [Ca2+]i and [H+]i in large, NMDA-responsive neurons.

Statistical model for degraded DNA samples and adjusted probabilities for allelic drop-out

DNA samples found at a scene of crime or obtained from the debris of a mass disaster accident are often subject to degradation. When using the STR DNA technology, the DNA profile is observed via a so-called electropherogram (EPG), where the alleles are identified as signal peaks above a certain level or above a signal to noise threshold. Degradation implies that these peak intensities decrease in strength for longer short tandem repeat (STR) sequences. Consequently, long STR loci may fail to produce peak heights above the limit of detection resulting in allelic or locus drop-outs. In this paper, we present a method for measuring the degree of degradation of a sample and demonstrate how to incorporate this in estimating the probability of allelic drop-out. This is done by extending an existing method derived for non-degraded samples. The performance of the methodology is evaluated using data from degraded DNA, where cases with varying amounts of DNA and levels of degradation are investigated.

Allelic drop-out probabilities estimated by logistic regression—Further considerations and practical implementation

We discuss the model for estimating drop-out probabilities presented by Tvedebrink et al. [7] and the concerns, that have been raised. The criticism of the model has demonstrated that the model is not perfect. However, the model is very useful for advanced forensic genetic work, where allelic drop-out is occurring. With this discussion, we hope to improve the drop-out model, so that it can be used for practical forensic genetics and stimulate further discussions. We discuss how to estimate drop-out probabilities when using a varying number of PCR cycles and other experimental conditions.

The survival of cultured mouse cerebellar granule cells is not dependent on elevated potassium-ion concentration

The effects of K+‐induced membrane depolarization were studied on the survival and biochemical parameters in mouse and rat cerebellar granule cells grown in micro‐well cultures. Cell numbers were determined by estimating DNA content using the Hoechst 33258 fluorochrome binding assay. DNA from degenerated cells was removed by prior DNAase treatment. These DNA estimates of cell numbers were comparable with values obtained by direct counting of fluorescein diacetate‐stained viable cells. In agreement with previous studies, the survival of rat granule cells was promoted by increasing the concentration of K+ in the medium from 5 to 25 mM throughout a 7‐day culture period. In contrast, mouse granule cells survived in culture containing ‘low’ K+ (5 or 10 mM), as well as in the presence of ‘high’ K+ (25 mM). On the other hand, several biochemical parameters in mouse granule cells were markedly increased by cultivation in ‘high’ as compared with ‘low’ K+‐containing media, demonstrated by increased fluorescein diacetate esterase activity, enhanced rate of NADPH‐dependent tetrazolium reduction, augmented 2‐deoxy‐d‐glucose accumulation and increased N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate‐evoked 45Ca2+ influx. It was concluded that although cultivation in ‘high’ K+ promotes biochemical differentiation in mouse cerebellar granule cells, these cells differ from their rat counterparts in that they do not develop a survival requirement for K+‐induced membrane depolarization.

Forensic genetic SNP typing of low-template DNA and highly degraded DNA from crime case samples

Heterozygote imbalances leading to allele drop-outs and disproportionally large stutters leading to allele drop-ins are known stochastic phenomena related to STR typing of low-template DNA (LtDNA). The large stutters and the many drop-ins in typical STR stutter positions are artifacts from the PCR amplification of tandem repeats. These artifacts may be avoided by typing bi-allelic markers instead of STRs. In this work, the SNPforID multiplex assay was used to type LtDNA. A sensitized SNP typing protocol was introduced, that increased signal strengths without increasing noise and without affecting the heterozygote balance. Allele drop-ins were only observed in experiments with 25 pg of DNA and not in experiments with 50 and 100 pg of DNA. The allele drop-in rate in the 25 pg experiments was 0.06% or 100 times lower than what was previously reported for STR typing of LtDNA. A composite model and two different consensus models were used to interpret the SNP data. Correct profiles with 42-49 SNPs were generated from the 50 and 100 pg experiments, whereas a few incorrect genotypes were included in the generated profiles from the 25 pg experiments. With the strict consensus model, between 35 and 48 SNPs were correctly typed in the 25 pg experiments and only one allele drop-out (error rate: 0.07%) was observed in the consensus profiles. A total of 28 crime case samples were selected for typing with the sensitized SNPforID protocol. The samples were previously typed with old STR kits during the crime case investigation and only partial profiles (0-6 STRs) were obtained. Eleven of the samples could not be quantified with the Quantifiler™ Human DNA Quantification kit because of partial or complete inhibition of the PCR. For eight of these samples, SNP typing was only possible when the buffer and DNA polymerase used in the original protocol was replaced with the AmpFℓSTR(®) SEfiler Plus™ Master Mix, which was developed specifically for challenging forensic samples. All the crime case samples were successfully typed with the SNPforID multiplex assay and the match probabilities ranged from 1.1×10(-15) to 7.9×10(-23). In comparison, four of the samples could not be typed with the AmpFℓSTR(®) SEfiler Plus™ kit and the match probabilities were higher than 10(-7) for another six samples.

Non-uniform phenotyping of D12S391 resolved by second generation sequencing

Non-uniform phenotyping of five case work samples were observed in the D12S391 locus. The samples were typed at least twice with the AmpFℓSTR NGM SElect PCR Amplification Kit and different alleles were called with GeneMapper ID-X in the different experiments. Detailed analyses of the electropherograms suggested that the individuals were heterozygous with two alleles that differed in size by one nucleotide. This was confirmed by amplifying the samples with the PowerPlex ESX 17 system. D12S391 is a complex STR with variable numbers of AGAT and AGAC repeats. Second generation sequencing revealed that separation of two alleles differing by one nucleotide in length was poor if the number of AGAT repeats in the short allele was higher than in the long allele. A total of 45 individuals with microvariants or off-ladder alleles in D12S391 were sequenced. Thirty different alleles were detected and sixteen of these were not previously reported.

Forensic and population genetic analyses of Danes, Greenlanders and Somalis typed with the Yfiler® Plus PCR amplification kit.

Recently, the Yfiler® Plus PCR Amplification Kit (Yfiler® Plus, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) was introduced. Yfiler® Plus amplifies 27 Y-chromosomal short tandem repeat loci (Y-STRs) and adds ten new Y-STRs to those analysed with the commonly used AmpFlSTR® Yfiler® PCR Amplification Kit (Yfiler®, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). Seven of the new Y-STRs are rapidly mutating Y-STRs (RM Y-STRs). In this study, 551 male individuals from Denmark, Greenland and Somalia were typed with Yfiler® Plus. The results were compared to those obtained with Yfiler® in the same individuals. Forensic and population genetic parameters were estimated for Yfiler® Plus. Yfiler® Plus had a higher power of discrimination than Yfiler® in all three populations. Compared to Yfiler®, Yfiler® Plus offers increased power of discrimination, which is obviously an advantage in crime case investigations. However, the inclusion of seven RM Y-STRs in Yfiler® Plus makes it less attractive for relationship testing because of the relatively high combined mutation rate, approximately 15%.