Hely Tuorila

Consumer responses to an off-flavor in juice in the presence of specific health claims

Abstract Adult US subjects (n=78) tasted and rated three juice samples containing 0, 0.3, and 0.6% KCl blind and informed. Three subgroups were informed that the juices contained functional ingredients to improve either (1) physical endurance and energy (2) mental alertness and memory, or (3) mood and emotional well-being. A control group received no information. Degree of liking and likelihood of consuming the juice once, twice or four times a day, for a total of four or 16 times, were rated. Adulteration with KCl decreased all ratings of liking, while information about health benefits increased ratings of liking in subgroups 1 and 2. Likelihood of consumption decreased with increasing KCl, with the increasing number of times per day, and with total dose regimen. The data suggest that the consumption of a functional food will be inversely related to the severity of off-flavor and to the required frequency and duration of consumption. No support was found for the notion that a slight off-flavor is a positive marker of health benefits to consumers.

Food neophobia among the Finns and related responses to familiar and unfamiliar foods

Abstract A representative sample of the Finns ( n =1083) rated the familiarity of 20 foods designated to be “familiar” or “unfamiliar” and willingness to try them. Subjects also filled in a 10-item questionnaire measuring their individual food neophobia. Food neophobia scores decreased with increasing education and with the degree of urbanization. Men were more neophobic than women, and the elderly (66–80 years) were more neophobic than the other age groups. Subjects with high food neophobia were less likely to have tasted or eaten the rated foods than were those with low food neophobia. Food neophobia significantly predicted the willingness to try “unfamiliar”, and also some “familiar” foods. In factor analysis, the items of the food neophobia scale loaded on two factors but the variance was mainly explained by the first factor related to the interest in new foods. The second factor may reflect a general concern about trying unknown foods. Overall, the translated food neophobia scale appeared to be a valid instrument for the characterization of consumer responses to unfamiliar foods.

Role of Sensory and Cognitive Information in the Enhancement of Certainty and Linking for Novel and Familiar Foods

Expected and actual liking for novel and familiar foods were examined under various conditions of sensory and verbal information with 121 subjects who differed in food neophobia. The possible mediating roles of uncertainty about product identity and resemblance to familiar foods were also investigated. Subjects were divided into three verbal information groups (no information; product name; ingredient and use information) balanced for neophobia, age and gender. All groups rated test samples under three sensory conditions: (1) appearance only, (2) appearance and smell and (3) appearance, smell and taste. Neophilics rated novel foods more favorably than did neophobics. Accumulating sensory experience (appearance, smell, taste) decreased liking for novel foods but increased liking for familiar foods. Verbal information generally increased liking for all samples. Liking and certainty of product identity were curvilinearly related for novel foods, but linearly related for familiar foods. Liking for products judged to closely resemble the test product predicted up to 64% of the variability in expected and actual liking. Eight weeks later, subjects rated one of the two novel foods higher than in the first exposure, but no other exposure effects were observed. Our data suggest that information (possibly via reduced uncertainty), resemblance to more familiar foods, and exposure contribute to reducing initially negative responses to novel foods; furthermore, neophobia decreases liking for novel foods similarly at all levels of sensory input (visual, smell and taste).

Simultaneous and temporal contextual influences on food acceptance

Abstract Food acceptance cannot be understood without consideration of context. This point was emphasized in many studies by Rose Marie Pangborn. We define context, and organize contextual effects as simultaneous and temporal. However, this organization is somewhat arbitrary, because the simultaneous-temporal distinction depends on the unit of analysis: bite, dish, meal or dietary pattern. We discuss both food and non-food contextual effects in accordance with both the simultaneous-temporal distinction and the unit of analysis. Topics covered include contextual interactions of oral and nasal stimulation during the bite or sip, appropriateness and culinary context at the level of the dish or meal, and the contextual effects of label, surroundings, social setting and the occasion. In addition, we consider explicitly temporal effects, such as expectations, effects of recent experience (such as monotony), the representation of past food experiences in current memory, the accuracy of current judgments about future reactions to a given food subsequent to exposure, and effects of knowledge of the past interpersonal history of specific foods (for example, who touched or prepared them).

Predicting the Intent to Purchase Unfamiliar and Familiar Cheeses: The Effects of Attitudes, Expected Liking and Food Neophobia

The attitude model of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) has been applied mainly to predicting the choice of familiar foods; however, the choice of unfamiliar foods may be governed by distinct factors. In the present study, 92 females rated their attitudes and subjective norms about the purchase intentions of two familiar and two unfamiliar cheeses, and the expected and actual pleasantness of them. They also completed the food neophobia scale, which measures the tendency to avoid novel foods. Neophobic persons rated the attitudes and expected and actual taste pleasantness lower than neophilics for all cheeses, except for the most familiar, mild cheese. This suggests that food neophobia also indicates the tendency not only to avoid, but also to dislike novel foods. Before tasting, attitudes and subjective norms together predicted the intent to purchase familiar cheeses better (R2=0.54 and 0.58) than for novel cheeses (R2=0.24 and 0.35); thus, the basic TRA model was not as useful in predicting intent to purchase unfamiliar as familiar cheeses. The predictions especially for the novel cheeses were clearly improved by including expected pleasantness ratings in the model. The usefulness of the food neophobia score as an additional predictor was not clearly supported. Attitudes and subjective norms measured before tasting were poor predictors of purchase intents after tasting, which implies the importance of taste and direct product experience in food choice.

Selection of milks with varying fat contents and related overall liking, attitudes, norms and intentions

A total of 236 subjects who used non-fat (0%), low-fat (1.9%) or regular-fat (3.9%) milk as their principal milk source participated in a hedonic test and in a survey in which overall liking, attitudes, norms and buying intentions of the three milk types as well as aspects of their consumption and shifts among them were studied. The subjects strongly preferred their own milk type in hedonic tests, in survey ratings of liking, and in their beliefs concerning sensory quality, nutritional and health value and suitability for various purposes. All the user groups indicated a reluctance to shift from the usual milk type but were, however, aware of nutritional recommendations as to which milk type they should use. The Fishbein model of attitudes, norms and behaviour explained 18-47% of the variation in buying intentions or selections of the milk types. The predictive power of the attitudinal component was greater than that of the norm component. Insertion of survey ratings of overall liking into the regression model slightly improved its predictive power (up to 25-48%), but this component was highly correlated with the attitude variable. It is concluded that the use of a certain milk type is highly supported by a consistent belief structure and positive attributions, which defend the established behaviour against any pressure to shift to another type of milk.

Validation and cross-national comparison of the food neophobia scale (FNS) using confirmatory factor analysis

The food neophobia scale [FNS; Appetite 19 (1992) 105] has been used to assess willingness to try new foods in studies conducted around the world. Although it is tempting to compare FNS scores across these studies, appropriate psychometric analyses are required to validate the scale and allow cross-cultural comparisons. These analyses were pursued in the current study using confirmatory factor analysis in conjunction with a data analysis strategy described by Steenkamp and Baumgartner [J. Consumer Res. 25 (1998) 78] and random, representative samples drawn from the United States, Sweden and Finland. A unidimensional scale was constructed using eight of the original 10 items from the FNS, and this model provided an excellent fit to the data from the US and Swedish samples. An acceptable fit was achieved for six items when data from the US, Sweden and Finland were used. Based on these analyses, we recommend that two items from the original FNS be dropped (items 5 and 9). Elimination of additional items may be premature given the potential contributions of difference in sampling and testing methodology associated with data collection from the three samples. Future efforts to develop a FNS for cross-national comparisons should target the development of a scale with 14-16 items so that dropping several items from a model (due to translation or other problems) allows retention of a sufficient number of items to insure a robust test. However, even with only six items, our results supported the conclusion that people from Sweden are generally more willing to try novel foods as compared to people from the US and Finland. Future studies should focus on the source of this enhanced willingness to try novel foods among the Swedes and the potential use of this information in the development of programs aimed at facilitating dietary change.

Willingness to try new foods as predicted by social representations and attitude and trait scales

The structure and predictive ability of social representation of new foods were investigated and compared with instruments measuring relevant attitudes and traits using a questionnaire quantifying these aspects, completed by 743 respondents. Based on their rated willingness to try, new foods were categorized as modified dairy products, genetically modified (GM), organic, and ethnic products (two examples, snails and passion fruit, were treated separately). The social representation (SR) consisted of five dimensions: suspicion of novelties, adherence to technology, adherence to natural food, eating as an enjoyment, and eating as a necessity. The SR dimensions were strong predictors of willingness to try GM foods (predicted by adherence to technology) and organic foods (predicted by adherence to natural foods). Low food neophobia predicted the rated willingness to try snails and passion fruit. Thus, different constructs predicted willingness to try different categories of new foods, and as a whole, SR dimensions markedly improved the prediction.

Dimensions of novelty: a social representation approach to new foods

Social representations of new foods were examined with a total of 44 subjects in nine focus groups. Each group was homogenous, defined by age, gender and educational background. Halfway through the interview, commercial packages of functional, genetically modified, organic, nutritionally modified and ethnic foods were presented as visual stimuli for discussion. Thematic and content analyses of the interview data showed that five dichotomies characterized the social representation: trust/distrust, safe/unsafe, natural/artificial, pleasure/necessity, and past/present. Many metaphors were used, with functional products being associated metaphorically with, for example, medicine and genetically modified products being associated with death and terrorism. Chronological references focused on the development of cuisine. The perceived unsafety of new foods was an important argument for women but not for men. The difference between age groups was in relating the discussion to either present time (young subjects) or past time (older subjects). Level of education affected the content of argumentation. In the context of new foods, social representations are formed to cope with the feeling of strangeness evoked by the novelties. They also have a role in cultural acceptance of new products by making them familiar. Overall, the results reflect the development of a new common sense in which popularized scientific notions are anchored in the process of urbanization.

Health and taste attitudes in the prediction of use frequency and choice between less healthy and more healthy snacks

Abstract Health and Taste Attitude scales developed by Roininen, Lahteenmaki and Tuorila, (1999). Quantification of consumer attitudes to health and hedonic characteristics of foods. Appetite, in press, were used in predicting choices among a ‘healthy’ (apple) or an ‘unhealthy’ (chocolate bar) food for a snack. A total of 144 respondents (15–60 years, mean 32 years of age) first completed Health and Taste Attitude questionnaires and then chose a snack (apple or chocolate bar) as a reward for their participation; these choices were recorded. In the second part of the study 1 week later, the respondents first chose a snack (an apple or chocolate bar) and then rated the pleasantness, healthiness, and use frequency of the snacks. The reported mean use frequency of apples was higher than that of chocolate bar, while in the choice task, subjects chose the chocolate bar more frequently. General health interest and Craving for sweet foods were good predictors of choices in the simple behavioral task and self-reported use frequencies of the products. Furthermore, Light product interest predicted choices and Using food as a reward predicted the frequency of use. In conclusion, several Health and Taste sub-scales proved to be useful in segmenting consumers. ©