Hendrik J. Smit

The influence of restrained and external eating patterns on overeating.

Eating in response to an increasingly obesogenic environment has been strongly implicated as a salient aspect of eating behaviour, arguably influenced by learning and experience. Interindividual differences in susceptibility to weight gain may be due, in part, to variability in response to environmental triggers. The phenomenon of food craving may also be an important factor influencing appetite control. The present study tested a model, in which food craving was hypothesised to be an intervening causal variable, on a causal pathway between responsivity to environmental cues and the development of obesity. One hundred and twenty four participants (aged 21-71 years, 83 females and 41 males) completed the study. Participants completed the Dutch eating behaviour questionnaire (DEBQ), measuring external eating (externality), emotional eating (emotionality) and restrained eating behaviour (restraint), and an adapted form of the food craving inventory (FCI), assessing cravings for carbohydrate, fats, sweets and fast food fats, in addition to total food cravings. Initial analysis showed positive correlations between FCI-tot and body mass index (BMI), FCI-fats and BMI and FCI-fast food fats and BMI in both men and women, and between FCI-carbohydrates and BMI in men only. Multiple regression analyses showed externality as the principal predictor of food craving, which was greater in males compared to females, but differential for different food groups between genders. Restrained eating and cravings for fats and fast food fats were negatively associated in women only. As predicted, total cravings, and cravings for fats and fast food foods mediated the positive association between external eating and BMI. It is concluded that appetitive response to external cues as an important risk factor in appetite control is mediated through cravings for particular food groups and is gender-dependent.

Effects of 'energy' drinks on mood and mental performance: critical methodology

Abstract Beneficial effects for mood and cognitive performance are believed to influence food and drink choice. The purpose of the present study was to demonstrate a sensitive methodology for providing objective evidence of such effects. A mildly fatiguing repetitive task formed the context for assessing the potential restorative effects of caffeine-containing ‘energy’ drinks. The methodology used was designed to account for a range of theorised variations in the data, many of which are often overlooked in current research. Significant effects of the energy drinks on task performance and self-rated mood were found. These effects can be summarised with the terms ‘alerting’, ‘revitalising’, ‘awakening’ and providing mental energy, and appear to be mainly caffeine related.

Reinforcing effects of caffeine and theobromine as found in chocolate.

RationaleAlthough in a previous study we showed that caffeine and theobromine were the main psychopharmacologically active constituents in a 50-g bar of chocolate, mere activity does not guarantee a role in our liking for the food.ObjectivesOur aim was to see if liking for a drink repeatedly paired with these amounts of caffeine and theobromine would increase compared to a placebo-paired drink.MethodsParticipants (n=64) consumed a ‘novel’ drink + treatment capsule on six non-consecutive mornings using a double-blind, placebo-controlled independent-sample design. Aspects of liking and intensity of various sensory descriptors for these drinks were measured at every drink collection. Treatment capsules contained either an ecologically relevant dose combination of 19-mg caffeine and 250-mg theobromine or a placebo.ResultsLiking for the drink paired with the methylxanthine-containing capsules increased over time compared to the placebo-paired drink. This highly significant effect was confirmed by subjective, retrospective changes in liking for the drink.ConclusionsMethylxanthines in amounts found in 50-g chocolate may well contribute to our liking for chocolate, especially to the more acquired taste for dark chocolate.

No efficacy of processed Fabuless (Olibra) in suppressing appetite or food intake.

Background/Objectives:To investigate the feasibility of Fabuless (previously called Olibra and Reducal) as a food ingredient for food intake and appetite reduction, by assessing the effects of food processing on efficacy.Subjects/Methods:In total, 24 healthy volunteers (16 female, 8 male; age: 18–43 years; body mass index: 18–37 kg/m2) took part in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded, cross-over trial. Yoghurt-based meal replacement drinks (containing processed or unprocessed Fabuless, or a control fat) were followed by an ad libitum lunch and evening meal (dinner). Key outcome measures were energy intake and self-reported appetite ratings.Results:Compared with control, only unprocessed Fabuless reduced subsequent energy intake, although only during dinner (P<0.01; control, processed and unprocessed: 4.3, 3.9 and 4.2 MJ, respectively) and not during lunch (3.6, 3.7 and 3.6 MJ). Self-reported appetite scores did not differ between treatments.Conclusions:Although modest effects of unprocessed Fabuless were seen on food intake, but not on appetite, the ingredient was not robust to common food-manufacturing processes (thermal and shear processing). Claims on reduced food intake and appetite relating to this ingredient in food products are, therefore, only valid if functionality has been demonstrated after all relevant processing and storage steps.

Role of familiarity on effects of caffeine- and glucose-containing soft drinks ☆

Familiarity, through conditioned responses and expectations, may play a significant role in the expression of liking for, and mood and performance effects of, food and drink constituents. The role of familiarity and the effects of caffeine and glucose in Lucozade Energy were investigated by testing this familiar soft drink, and its non-caffeine/non-CHO placebo match, against novel coloured/flavoured full and placebo drinks. Both the familiar drink and its placebo improved alertness, mental energy and mental performance compared to baseline and compared to the novel placebo drink. After repeated exposure, that is, after having gained familiarity with the novel drinks in addition to the already existing familiarity with Lucozade Energy, only the full (caffeine and CHO containing) drinks showed sustained beneficial effects compared to placebo drinks and baseline measures, as well as an increase in liking compared to placebo drinks. Therefore, participants appeared to have learned that beneficial effects were mainly linked to the full products. The results illustrate the restorative combination of caffeine and CHO in the drink, and emphasises the need to implement the appropriate placebo(s) in any study design employing familiar foods or drinks.

No appetite efficacy of a commercial structured lipid emulsion in minimally processed drinks

Background/Objectives:Fabuless (Olibra) is a commercially structured lipid emulsion, claimed to be a food ingredient that is effective for food intake and appetite reduction. The present study assessed its efficacy in a yoghurt-based mini-drink undergoing low or minimal food manufacturing (thermal and shear) processes.Subjects/Methods:Study 1: Twenty-four healthy volunteers (16 female, 8 male; age: 18–47 years; body mass index (BMI): 17–28 kg m−2) took part in a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind parallel crossover trial. Consumption of a minimally processed ‘preload’ mini-drink (containing two different doses of Fabuless or a control fat) at 2 h after breakfast was followed by appetite and mood ratings, and food intake measured in ad libitum meals at 3 and 7 h post consumption of the preload. Study 2: As Study 1 (16 female, 8 male; age: 20–54 years; BMI: 21–30 kg m−2). A chilled, virtually unprocessed, preload breakfast mini-drink (containing minimally processed Fabuless or a control fat) was provided 5 min after a standardised breakfast, followed by appetite and mood ratings, and food intake measured in ad libitum meals at 4 and 8 h post consumption of the preload.Results:The structured lipid emulsion tested had no significant effect on the primary measures of food intake or appetite.Conclusions:Even when exposed to minimal food-manufacturing conditions, Fabuless showed no efficacy on measures of appetite and food intake.