Henk K. Mienis

Middle Paleolithic shell beads in Israel and Algeria.

Perforated marine gastropod shells at the western Asian site of Skhul and the North African site of Oued Djebbana indicate the early use of beads by modern humans in these regions. The remoteness of these sites from the seashore and a comparison of the shells to natural shell assemblages indicate deliberate selection and transport by humans for symbolic use. Elemental and chemical analyses of sediment matrix adhered to one Nassarius gibbosulus from Skhul indicate that the shell bead comes from a layer containing 10 human fossils and dating to 100,000 to 135,000 years ago, about 25,000 years earlier than previous evidence for personal decoration by modern humans in South Africa.

Additional evidence on the use of personal ornaments in the Middle Paleolithic of North Africa

Recent investigations into the origins of symbolism indicate that personal ornaments in the form of perforated marine shell beads were used in the Near East, North Africa, and SubSaharan Africa at least 35 ka earlier than any personal ornaments in Europe. Together with instances of pigment use, engravings, and formal bone tools, personal ornaments are used to support an early emergence of behavioral modernity in Africa, associated with the origin of our species and significantly predating the timing for its dispersal out of Africa. Criticisms have been leveled at the low numbers of recovered shells, the lack of secure dating evidence, and the fact that documented examples were not deliberately shaped. In this paper, we report on 25 additional shell beads from four Moroccan Middle Paleolithic sites. We review their stratigraphic and chronological contexts and address the issue of these shells having been deliberately modified and used. We detail the results of comparative analyses of modern, fossil, and archaeological assemblages and microscopic examinations of the Moroccan material. We conclude that Nassarius shells were consistently used for personal ornamentation in this region at the end of the last interglacial. Absence of ornaments at Middle Paleolithic sites postdating Marine Isotope Stage 5 raises the question of the possible role of climatic changes in the disappearance of this hallmark of symbolic behavior before its reinvention 40 ka ago. Our results suggest that further inquiry is necessary into the mechanisms of cultural transmission within early Homo sapiens populations.

Symbolic Use of Terrestrial Gastropod Opercula during the Middle Stone Age at Porc‐Epic Cave, Ethiopia

The Middle Stone Age site of Porc‐Epic in southeastern Ethiopia has produced hundreds of opercula of the terrestrial gastropod Revoilia guillainopsis. Each of these opercula has a central perforation, and the unbroken specimens resemble disc beads. Microscopic examination could not unequivocally confirm their manufacture or use as beads. Their archaeological context indicates that their presence at the site was not the result of natural processes. Direct accelerator mass spectrometry dating of three opercula from different stratigraphic levels has produced ages ranging from about 33,000 to more than 43,000 years old. The opercula do not represent human food refuse but appear to have been collected by the Middle Stone Age occupants of the site for symbolic reasons.

Non-indigenous land and freshwater gastropods in Israel

Few comprehensive works have investigated non-indigenous snails and slugs as a group. We compiled a database of non-indigenous gastropods in Israel to explore how they arrived and spread, characteristics of their introduction, and their biological traits. Fifty-two species of introduced gastropods are known from Israel (of which nine species subsequently went extinct): 19 species of freshwater snails and 33 species of terrestrial gastropods. The majority of these species are found only in human-dominated habitats. Most of those found in natural habitats are aquatic species. Most snails are introduced unintentionally from various parts of the Holoarctic region, reaching Israel as stowaways with horticultural imports and the aquarium trade, but some are brought intentionally to be used as pets or for food. Because the study of this group in Israel is very limited, information regarding their distribution in the country and their effects on other species is incomplete. Though only nine species of non-indigenous snails have been found to date in natural habitats, some of these are very abundant. More information and research is required to enable effective management schemes.

AQUATIC INVERTEBRATE DISTRIBUTION IN NAHAL TANNINIM, ISRAEL

ABSTRACT The aquatic invertebrate assemblage of a Mediterranean coastal river, Nahal Tanninim, was investigated during 1978–1981. Five stations were periodically sampled (82 samples total) ranging from an upstream freshwater section with seasonal flow to the convergence of the river with the Mediterranean Sea. Fifty-nine taxa were collected; the most species-rich groups were malacostracan crustaceans, gastropods and oligochaetes. The species richness of malacostracan crustaceans was greater than in all other coastal rivers in Israel. The isopod Cyathura carinata is known in Israel only from N. Tanninim. Comparisons among stations by cluster analysis indicate a high similarity among downstream stations characterized by permanent flow and oligohaline conditions. The fauna of the freshwater section characterized by temporary, intermittent flow differed significantly from the other stations. Limited evidence exists for the presence of a transition zone between the oligohaline and freshwater sections of the river.

On the Trade of Shells and Fish from the Nile River

Large, fresh-water shells (Aspatharia, Mutela) and fish (Clarias) that originated in the Nile River have been found on excavations mainly in Palestine but also in the Aegean, Cyprus, and North Africa beyond Egypt. The shells from prehistoric sites are seen as exotic imports, often burial or sanctuary offerings. They are often holed to make small containers. Those found in quantity from later sites may have been an exotic food source. The fish from a Cypriot tomb and from excavations in Libya were probably exotic food remains for the living and the dead. The temporal and spatial distribution of these remains indicates that they should be added to the corpus of objects traded from Egypt.

Late Quaternary beach deposits and archaeological relicts on the coasts of Cyprus, and the possible implications of sea-level changes and tectonics on the early populations

Abstract Late Pleistocene beach deposits in 22 selected sites around Cyprus demonstrate the vertical changes in the Earths crust in that island over the last 125 ka. The beach/shallow-marine deposits were observed on the abraded coastal cliffs at 3–22 m above the present sea-level. They overlie Pliocene marls, and some of them contain the Senegalese marine gastropods Persististrombus latus, Bursa granularis and Conus ermineus that no longer live in the Mediterranean. These are index fossils for the Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5e in the Mediterranean and, as such, suggest an uplift of up to 15.5 m over about the last 125 ka: that is a maximal rate of 0.12 mm a−1. These findings are in accordance with Holocene beachrocks, abrasion platforms, wave notches and Roman/Byzantine fish tanks that retained their elevations, and thus enable the reconstruction of the coast encountered by the early colonizers. While the maximal uplift since the early Holocene has been minor and did not exceed 1.2–1.5 m, the sea-level changes have reached 40–50 m. The transition between the impermeable Pliocene marls and the porous Late Pleistocene deposits above them is the origin of freshwater springs and associated vegetation. The early colonizers seemed to recognize the potential of that essential permanent source of water and excavated wells, the earliest wells known so far. The locations of the Early Neolithic settlements (Mylouthkia and Akanthou) adjacent to visible water springs along the coastal cliffs may not be incidental. Not surprisingly, recent wells dug in the coastal Pleistocene deposits rely on the very same hydrological setting. Supplementary material: Appendices 1–4, which include tables and diagrams showing the vertical changes (m) and rates of vertical changes (mm ka−1), assuming that MIS5e isotope stage deposits are 122 ka old and are at elevation of 7.2 m asl, or 116 ka at 6.5 m, are available at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18830.

Not so poor—more deep-sea records from the Levant Sea, eastern Mediterranean

Among the biota collected during two surveys of deep-water dumping sites off the Israeli coast, four species of interest were identified: the bobtail squid, Neorossia caroli caroli , the deep-sea asteroid, Brisingella coronata , and the tonguesole, Symphurus ligulatus , are new for the Levant Sea, while the four-horned octopus, Pteroctopus tetracirrhus , is a new record for the Israeli coast. The growing list of bathybenthic species, resulting from expanding research efforts, challenges the conventional view of the Levant deep-sea biodiversity.

First evidence of “ancient deer” (cervid) in the late Miocene Bira Formation, Northern Israel

Despite the extensive geological and paleontological searches in the south Levant, no terrestrial fauna of late Neogene age was yet reported. Here, we report the first evidence of “ancient deer”–cervid in the late Miocene (Tortonian) lacustrine section of the Bira Formation at Hagal Stream, Jordan Valley, northern Israel. The section comprises rich assemblage of macrofauna fossils, mostly freshwater mollusks. The mammalian bone was discovered among the macrofauna fossils, and is described as an almost complete left humerus of an adult animal identified as an artiodactyls element probably of a cervid. This terrestrial mammal shares similar paleoenvironmental conditions with other contemporaneous localities, where cervids prevailed with bovids and other taxa. It appears that the freshwater lakes provided favorite habitat for the development of the cervids and possibly other mammals. The specific conditions of preservation of the cervid illuminate the role of post depositional processes (taphonomic constrains) in masking terrestrial fauna remains in the region. Accordingly, further efforts will be devoted to unveil the mute part of the southern Levant–east Mediterranean terrestrial faunistic realm at the end of the Miocene.