Henrietta Turner

Late Developmental Plasticity in the T Helper 17 Lineage

Development of T helper (Th) 17 cells requires transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta and interleukin (IL)-6 and is independent of the Th1 pathway. Although T cells that produce interferon (IFN)-gamma are a recognized feature of Th17 cell responses, mice deficient for STAT4 and T-bet-two prototypical Th1 transcription factors-are protected from autoimmunity associated with Th17 pathogenesis. To examine the fate and pathogenic potential of Th17 cells and origin of IFN-gamma-producing T cells that emerge during Th17 immunity, we developed IL-17F reporter mice that identify cells committed to expression of IL-17F and IL-17A. Th17 cells required TGF-beta for sustained expression of IL-17F and IL-17A. In the absence of TGF-beta, both IL-23 and IL-12 acted to suppress IL-17 and enhance IFN-gamma production in a STAT4- and T-bet-dependent manner, albeit with distinct efficiencies. These results support a model of late Th17 developmental plasticity with implications for autoimmunity and host defense.

IL-9 as a mediator of Th17-driven inflammatory disease

We report that like other T cells cultured in the presence of transforming growth factor (TGF) β, Th17 cells also produce interleukin (IL) 9. Th17 cells generated in vitro with IL-6 and TGF-β as well as purified ex vivo Th17 cells both produced IL-9. To determine if IL-9 has functional consequences in Th17-mediated inflammatory disease, we evaluated the role of IL-9 in the development and progression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. The data show that IL-9 neutralization and IL-9 receptor deficiency attenuates disease, and this correlates with decreases in Th17 cells and IL-6–producing macrophages in the central nervous system, as well as mast cell numbers in the regional lymph nodes. Collectively, these data implicate IL-9 as a Th17-derived cytokine that can contribute to inflammatory disease.

Infectious entry pathway for canine parvovirus.

We have investigated whether canine parvovirus (CPV) infection involves a low pH-dependent entry pathway. The effects of two lysosomotropic bases, NH4Cl and chloroquine, on CPV entry were studied by immunofluorescence and ultrastructural and biochemical methods. In the presence of these reagents, input virions appear to accumulate in large vacuoles. Ultrastructural studies indicated that uptake of virions takes place predominantly in small uncoated vesicles that appear to fuse with larger vesicles. In the presence of NH4Cl, virions accumulate in the latter structures and their uncoating appears to be prevented. Viral DNA as well as antigen synthesis were found to be significantly inhibited in the presence of these reagents. In addition, inhibition of viral DNA and antigen synthesis appeared to be most extensive when NH4Cl was present from 30 min preinfection, whereas no significant inhibition was observed when the cells were treated after 2 hr postinfection. Thus, the results indicate that CPV requires exposure to low pH in an endosomal compartment to initiate a productive infection.

Deletion of a Conserved cis-Element in the Ifng Locus Highlights the Role of Acute Histone Acetylation in Modulating Inducible Gene Transcription

Differentiation-dependent regulation of the Ifng cytokine gene locus in T helper (Th) cells has emerged as an excellent model for functional study of distal elements that control lineage-specific gene expression. We previously identified a cis-regulatory element located 22 kb upstream of the Ifng gene (Conserved Non-coding Sequence -22, or CNS-22) that is a site for recruitment of the transcription factors T-bet, Runx3, NF-κB and STAT4, which act to regulate transcription of the Ifng gene in Th1 cells. Here, we report the generation of mice with a conditional deletion of CNS-22 that has enabled us to define the epigenetic and functional consequences of its absence. Deletion of CNS-22 led to a defect in induction of Ifng by the cytokines IL-12 and IL-18, with a more modest effect on induction via T-cell receptor activation. To better understand how CNS-22 and other Ifng CNSs regulated Ifng transcription in response to these distinct stimuli, we examined activation-dependent changes in epigenetic modifications across the extended Ifng locus in CNS-22-deficient T cells. We demonstrate that in response to both cytokine and TCR driven activation signals, CNS-22 and other Ifng CNSs recruit increased activity of histone acetyl transferases (HATs) that transiently enhance levels of histones H3 and H4 acetylation across the extended Ifng locus. We also demonstrate that activation-responsive increases in histone acetylation levels are directly linked to the ability of Ifng CNSs to acutely enhance Pol II recruitment to the Ifng promoter. Finally, we show that impairment in IL-12+IL-18 dependent induction of Ifng stems from the importance of CNS-22 in coordinating locus-wide levels of histone acetylation in response to these cytokines. These findings identify a role for acute histone acetylation in the enhancer function of distal conserved cis-elements that regulate of Ifng gene expression.

Expression of SV40 receptors on apical surfaces of polarized epithelial cells.

We have investigated the interaction of SV40 virions with polarized monkey kidney epithelial cells. Virions were tagged with biotin to facilitate their detection and were found to retain full infectivity. When polarized Vero C1008 cells were incubated with biotinylated virions followed by a strepavidin-rhodamine conjugate, distinct cell populations were identified which expressed very different levels of SV40 receptors. The parental Vero C1008 cells yielded three types of cell clones which exhibited low, moderate, or predominantly high levels of SV40 binding. Virus-binding assays to each of these clones as well as to parental Vero C1008 cells indicated that the level of SV40 receptor expression is cell-cycle-dependent. The cellular receptors for influenza A virus (WSN strain) were also found to be distributed heterogeneously on polarized epithelial cells. In contrast, in several types of nonpolarized cells, SV40 receptors were found to be uniformly distributed over the monolayer. SV40 binding was not found to correlate with HLA expression on Vero C1008 cells or other cell types. Also in contrast to SV40 receptor expression, which is restricted to the apical domain, HLA was found to be distributed on both apical and basolateral domains of Vero C1008 cells.

Selective Induction of Homeostatic Th17 Cells in the Murine Intestine by Cholera Toxin Interacting with the Microbiota

Th17 cells play a role as an inflammation mediator in a variety of autoimmune disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease, and thus are widely considered to be pathogenic. However, Th17 cells are present in the normal intestine and show a homeostatic phenotype; that is, they participate in the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis rather than inducing inflammation. We observed an enlarged Th17 population in the small intestine of C57BL/6.IgA−/− mice compared with wild-type mice, which was further amplified with cholera toxin (CT) immunization without causing intestinal inflammation. The increased Th17 induction and the correspondingly 10-fold higher CT B subunit–specific serum IgG response in IgA−/− mice after CT immunization was microbiota dependent and was associated with increased segmented filamentous bacteria in the small intestine of IgA−/− mice. Oral administration of vancomycin greatly dampened both CT immunogenicity and adjuvanticity, and the differential CT responses in IgA−/− and wild-type mice disappeared after intestinal microbiota equalization. Using gnotobiotic mouse models, we found that CT induction of homeostatic intestinal Th17 responses was supported not only by segmented filamentous bacteria, but also by other commensal bacteria. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis using IL-17AhCD2 reporter mice revealed a similar gene expression profile in CT-induced intestinal Th17 cells and endogenous intestinal Th17 cells at homeostasis, with upregulated expression of a panel of immune-regulatory genes, which was distinctly different from the gene expression profile of pathogenic Th17 cells. Taken together, we identified a nonpathogenic signature of intestinal homeostatic Th17 cells, which are actively regulated by the commensal microbiota and can be selectively stimulated by CT.

Differential IL-2 expression defines developmental fates of follicular versus nonfollicular helper T cells

(IL-)2 be or not to be? Immunological T follicular helper (TFH) cells are a subpopulation of CD4+ T cells that support B cell antibody production and the establishment of B cell memory. By contrast, non-TFH cells orchestrate enhanced innate immune cell functions at sites of pathogen encounter. The factors underlying differentiation into a TFH or non-TFH cell remain poorly understood, though there is evidence to suggest that the T cell growth factor interleukin-2 (IL-2) may play a role. Using IL-2 reporter mice, DiToro et al. show that naïve CD4+ T cells that produce IL-2 are fated to become TFH cells, whereas nonproducers, which receive IL-2, become non-TFH cells. The CD4+ T cell–fate decision was linked to T cell receptor strength—only those naïve CD4+ T cells that received the highest T cell receptor signals were able to produce IL-2. Science, this issue p. eaao2933 Expression of the cytokine IL-2 is linked with cell fate choice in immunological T cells. INTRODUCTION The adaptive immune system has evolved to mount different types of responses that are matched to the type of invading pathogen. For CD4+ T cells, this is predicated on the multipotentiality of clonally restricted naïve T cells, which differentiate into distinct subsets of effector T cells contingent on recognition of cognate antigen and cytokine cues from cells of the innate immune system. There are two broad divisions of effector CD4+ T cells: T follicular helper (TFH) cells, which are programmed to interact with B cells within lymphoid tissues to support production of high-affinity, class-switched antibodies, and non-TFH effector cells, including T helper 1 (TH1), TH2, and TH17 cells, which are programmed to egress from lymphoid tissues to orchestrate heightened innate immune cell function at sites of pathogen entry. The mechanisms controlling bifurcation into TFH versus non-TFH effector cell pathways are incompletely understood. RATIONALE An impediment to understanding mechanisms controlling TFH–non-TFH cell divergence is an absence of early markers to define cells destined for these alternative fates. Unlike effector CD4+ T cells, which produce a diversity of cytokines that define their phenotype and function, naïve CD4+ T cells are largely limited to the rapid production of interleukin-2 (IL-2) when activated by antigen. IL-2 is only produced by a subset of activated naïve T cells, suggesting a possible relationship between IL-2 production and effector cell fate determination. To explore this, we developed two IL-2 reporter mice strains with complementary features that enabled the tracking and deletion of T cells on the basis of differential IL-2 expression. This allowed us to determine whether naïve T cells that do, or do not, produce IL-2 are biased in their developmental programming and, if so, how. RESULTS RNA sequencing of naïve T cells sorted on the basis of IL-2 reporter expression identified cosegregation of transcripts encoding IL-2 and Bcl6—the signature transcription factor of TFH cells. Conversely, IL-2–negative (IL-2–) cells preferentially expressed the gene Prdm1, which encodes the transcriptional repressor Blimp1. Blimp1, in turn, antagonizes Bcl6 and the TFH developmental program. This suggested that IL-2 producers give rise to TFH cells, whereas IL-2 nonproducers give rise to non-TFH effector cells. Moreover, the fact that IL-2 receptor signaling induces expression of Prdm1 via Stat5 suggested that IL-2 producers resisted IL-2 signaling and activated IL-2 signaling in nonproducers in trans. Indeed, in vivo studies established that IL-2 signaling was mostly paracrine and that depletion of IL-2–producing cells selectively impaired TFH cell development. Finally, IL-2 expression was limited to a subset of naïve T cells that received the strongest T cell receptor (TCR) signals, establishing a link between TCR signal strength, IL-2 production, and TFH versus non-TFH differentiation. CONCLUSION This study provides new insights into the mechanisms that control early bifurcation of CD4+ T cells into TFH and non-TFH effectors. Naïve T cells that receive differing strengths of TCR signals stratify into those that exceed a threshold predisposing them to IL-2 production and early TFH commitment and those that do not express IL-2 yet receive IL-2 signaling, which reinforces non-TFH effector commitment. IL-2–producing CD4+ T cells become TFH cells, whereas IL-2 nonproducers become non-TFH cells. (Left) Strong TCR signaling via an antigen presenting cell induces Il2 and Bcl6 gene expression (red pathway); weaker signaling induces expression of non-TFH genes (blue pathway), including Prdm1 and S1pr1, which encodes the S1P receptor S1PR1. Bcl6+ cells (red) secrete IL-2 in trans to T regulatory (Treg) cells (yellow) and recently activated IL-2– cells (blue), up-regulating IL-2 receptor IL2rα and reinforcing Prdm1. (Top right) Bcl6+ cells engage cognate B cells (green) and migrate to germinal centers (GCs); Bcl6+ TFH cells mature into GC-TFH cells. (Bottom right) Prdm1+ cells migrate to efferent lymphatics and mature into non-TFH effectors in nonlymphoid tissues. MHCII, major histocompatibility complex class II; ICOS, inducible costimulator; CXCR5, a receptor for chemokine CXCL13. In response to infection, naïve CD4+ T cells differentiate into two subpopulations: T follicular helper (TFH) cells, which support B cell antibody production, and non-TFH cells, which enhance innate immune cell functions. Interleukin-2 (IL-2), the major cytokine produced by naïve T cells, plays an important role in the developmental divergence of these populations. However, the relationship between IL-2 production and fate determination remains unclear. Using reporter mice, we found that differential production of IL-2 by naïve CD4+ T cells defined precursors fated for different immune functions. IL-2 producers, which were fated to become TFH cells, delivered IL-2 to nonproducers destined to become non-TFH cells. Because IL-2 production was limited to cells receiving the strongest T cell receptor (TCR) signals, a direct link between TCR-signal strength, IL-2 production, and T cell fate determination has been established.

Negative Regulation of IL-10 Expression in CD4 T Cells by Growth Factor Independent-1: P-181

BACKGROUND: The microbiota is important in shaping the mammalian host’s immune system and is useful in identifying mechanisms of immune maturation. In the limited number of associations between commensal microbes and the immune system that are known to indicate a profound immunomodulatory relationship, the microbes involved have been identified at the genus (or sometimes the species) level; in contrast, little relevant information has been obtained at the microbial molecular level. A notable exception is the relationship between capsular polysaccharide A (PSA) of the gut commensal Bacteroides fragilis and the induction of regulatory T cells (Tregs) that can limit pathologic inflammation both in the gut and in more distant tissues. The ability of PSA to induce secretion of the potent anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 10 (IL-10) is vital to the control of inflammation. Restoration of tissue homeostasis by a functional class of dendritic cells (DCs), designated tolerogenic DCs, has been described and is due, at least in part, to generation or enhancement of the function of Tregs. Although PSA affects DCs, it has not been shown whether DCs play a role in the immunoregulatory activities of PSA. METHODS: We treated specific-pathogen-free animals with B fragilis expressing PSA and followed T regs and associated DCs in mesenteric lymph nodes and other tissues in absence of additional inflammatory stimulus. We purified PSA from B fragilis and utilized in vitro in DC-CD4þT cell co-culture assay and in vivo in TNBS-induced colitis and Myelin-PLP induced multiple sclerosis models. Genetically deficient mice, antibody mediated in vivo inhibition and depletion along with adoptive transfer of PSA treated DC subsets were employed. RESULTS: We show that a subset of DCs known as plasmacytoid DCs (PDCs) when exposed to PSA are potent inducers of IL-10 production by CD4þ T cells in vitro. In the murine model of colonic inflammation, PDCs characteristically phenotype PSA mediated protection in a Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) dependent way. Interestingly, PDCs are essential for the immunoprotective activities of PSA in this colitis model as observed by antibody mediated PDC depletion and adoptive transfer experiments. TLR2, an immunosensitive receptor of PSA, is induced in PDCs by PSA and, along with ICOSL and CD86, mediates PSA’s immunoregulatory function in vitro and in vivo. Finally, in a murine model of multiple sclerosis wherein PSA was found to be protective, we observed near complete mortality in mice treated with PDC depleting antibody irrespective of PSA treatment, while the isotype control treated mice survived and were protected significantly by PSA treatment in terms of clinical scores. CONCLUSION(S): Our results demonstrate how a prototypical molecule from the commensal microbiota enables a subset of DCs to modify pathologic outcome in the gut and a distant tissue. Understanding functional polarization of PDCs or other DCs by molecules derived from the commensal microbiota and elucidating how these molecules shape immune development may help identify new therapeutic approaches to inflammatory diseases.