Henry Wai-chung Yeung

Critical realism and realist research in human geography: a method or a philosophy in search of a method?

Recent philosophical debates in human geography tend to misappropriate critical realism as a method per se. Drawing upon an extensive review of the realist philosophy and method in social science, this article argues that critical realism is a philosophy in search of a method. It first delves into recent debates about critical realism within the wider geographical discourse. It then suggests three useful guidelines in executing realist research in human geography: iterative abstraction, qualified grounded theory method and methodological triangulation. The article ends with a detailed empirical example for the readers to work through of the ways in which realist research can be practised in human geography.

Whither Global Production Networks in Economic Geography? Past, Present, and Future:

We would like to thank Jamie Peck and Ros Whitehead for their efficient handling of the review process of this special issue. We are grateful to all the paper presenters and participants in the three paper sessions on “Global Production Networks” at the Philadelphia centennial meeting of the Association of American Geographers in March 2004 for their important contributions to the development of global production networks as a research paradigm in economic geography. We would also like to thank the authors who have subsequently developed their papers specifically for this special issue and waited patiently for the issue to be published. And finally, our sincere thanks to Neil Coe and Peter Dicken for their critical and constructive comments on a first draft of this essay. However, we are solely responsible for the content in this editorial.

Pathways to global city formation: a view from the developmental city-state of Singapore

The main aim of this paper is to offer a constructive critique of the dominant (indeed hegemonic) global city/world city discourse. This is a discourse that is overly dependent upon a theoreticallyglobalistperspective derived out of limited empirical studies. Moreover, this is a discourse that focuses relatively too much upon (a) the characteristics of global/world cities and (b) the processes creating global/world cities versus (b) and (c) governance issues and implications. Consequently there remain many unanswered questions about how global cities have‘come into being’, and what is the role of the state in intentionally devising pathways to global city formation. In such a conceptual context, we tease out the main contours of three forms of global cities–hyper global cities; emerging global cities; and global city-states–in emphasizing the need to consider differential and dynamic developmental pathways. Drawing upon the case of Singapore, we then analyse the unique nature of the global city-state, especially in a Pacific Asian context associated with strategic‘plan rational’developmental states. The conjunction of a Pacific Asian city-state with developmentalist policies and capacities both requires and enables this form of global city to be rapidly and constantly reworked in the aim of embedding the city into an extraterritorial terrain of network relations.

Practicing New Economic Geographies: A Methodological Examination

Abstract Practicing new economic geographies necessarily entails a critical re-evaluation of research methodologies because of its different substantive research foci. In this article, I examine some methodological implications of the recent refiguring of the “economic” in economic geography. Some key features of new economic geographies include understanding the social embeddedness of economic action, mapping shifting identities of social actors, and exploring the role of material and discursive contexts in shaping economic behavior. I argue that practitioners of new economic geographies can no longer rely exclusively on established “scientific” methodology for empirical research and data analysis. Instead, I argue for a process-based methodological framework through which we employ complementary methodological practices (e.g., tracing actor networks and in situ research) and triangulation, not only to explore the microfoundations of economic action, but also to generate, in a reflexive manner, theoretical insights from the multiscalar dimensions of economic action.Abstract Practicing new economic geographies necessarily entails a critical re-evaluation of research methodologies because of its different substantive research foci. In this article, I examine some methodological implications of the recent refiguring of the “economic” in economic geography. Some key features of new economic geographies include understanding the social embeddedness of economic action, mapping shifting identities of social actors, and exploring the role of material and discursive contexts in shaping economic behavior. I argue that practitioners of new economic geographies can no longer rely exclusively on established “scientific” methodology for empirical research and data analysis. Instead, I argue for a process-based methodological framework through which we employ complementary methodological practices (e.g., tracing actor networks and in situ research) and triangulation, not only to explore the microfoundations of economic action, but also to generate, in a reflexive manner, theoretic...

Theorizing Economic Geographies of Asia

Abstract Economic geographies of Asia are highly fascinating, not the least because Asia has increasingly emerged as a significant economic player in all spheres of global competition: production, consumption, and circulation. This dynamic mosaic of economic landscapes in Asia was further complicated during the 1997–1998 economic crisis and thereafter. While some aspects of these economic geographies of Asia have already received research attention, many complex economic geographic processes in Asia have been undertheorized in the literature. This agenda-setting article makes two critical observations. First, the theorization of dynamic economic changes in Asia needs to be more critical of economic geography theories developed elsewhere in the Anglo-American context. The Asian case may significantly challenge existing theories in economic geography. Second, certain geographic processes in Asia require fundamentally new approaches to theorization that may contribute to the development of broader theories in economic geography. The economic dynamism of Asia has provided a useful site for the development of theory and empirical understanding in contemporary economic geography. To support our arguments and observations, we discuss the situatedness and specificity of influential theories of economic geography and offer some constructive suggestions for an intellectual agenda for developing new theories in economic geography.

Qualitative personal interviews in international business research: Some lessons from a study of Hong Kong Transnational Corporations

This paper is concerned with the role of qualitative personal interviews in international business research. Based on an ongoing research into more than 120 transnational corporations from Hong Kong and more than 60 of their subsidiaries and/or affiliates in Southeast Asia, I argue that the qualitative personal interview method is a much better technique than other common techniques in international business research such as postal surveys and telephone interviews. This argument is particularly relevant when the research is conducted in an urban context and the objective is to probe deeply into the processes and mechanisms of international business. Another dimension of the qualitative personal interview method is that it provides much flexibility both in the conduct of data collection and subsequent analysis. This advantage proves to be critical to international business research because of the changing context of research and concern with business firms operating simultaneously in several geographical locations.

Critical reviews of geographical perspectives on business organizations and the organization of production: towards a network approach

ing its essence, a ’business network’ can be defined as an integrated and co-ordinated set of ongoing economic and noneconomic relations embedded within, among and outside business firms. Although this conceptual definition is necessarily broad, its concrete realization can take a very specific form (e.g., strategic alliances). A network is more than just an integrated structure because it is simultaneously a structure and a process. It is a nested structure with emergent power in an abstract sense. In its concrete manifestation, a network is an ongoing process of economic and noneconomic relations. To what extent are networks different from markets and hierarchies? This is a question which has long puzzled organizational theorists and industrial economists (see Thompson et al., 1991; Forsgren and Johanson, 1992b). In conceptual terms, the rigid separation of markets, networks and hierarchies is invalid. This separation is a consequence of some misleading stereotypes of organizational forms and structures. This article contends that the idea of ’networks’, in its general sense, might be used to embrace both markets and hierarchies (cf. Frances et al., 1991). To a significant extent, a hierarchy represents a unique form of network that of a vertically integrated and structured network. Networks, on the other hand, can be understood conceptually as widely as the market and as narrowly as a specific form of network within a firm. The concept of network inevitably transcends the crude dichotomy between markets and hierarchies as promulgated widely in the economics literature. The most influential figure in this market versus hierarchy approach is the transaction costs economist Oliver Williamson (1975; 1985; 1986). Some recent works by institutional economists insist that the firm be considered as a ’nexus of treaties’ and/or ’nexus of contracts’ (see Aoki et al., 1990). But both characterizations of the firm are flawed for three reasons. First, the firm is relegated to the status of only a puppet in the crowd of treaties and contracts. Its causal powers, as expressed in the mode of rationality, are overlooked. Secondly, important social (network) relations are shelved and replaced by the economizing of transaction costs. Economic reasoning thus overshadows social-spatial considerations. Thirdly, the notions of ’treaties’ and ’contracts’ are too descriptive to explain anything causally within and outside the firm. There is obviously little reference to contextual issues in this approach. The nature of networks deserves some special attention because it has direct bearing on understanding business organizations. Christensen et al. (1990: 28) have provided a succinct summary of the major attributes for the existence of a network relationship between firms: 1. Two or more firms must have some sort of commercial relationship. 2. Each of these firms is dependent on assets controlled by other partners in the network. 3. The partners in a network have some form of independence as well. ’ 4. A network relationship needs transaction-specific investments from both sides which are of semi-specific character. It takes time to develop such relationship. 5. A firm can take part in more than one network. 6. Different power structures can be identified. One model identifies an asymmetric power structure where a hub firm dominates the network. Another model is based on a more symmetric balance of power between the partners. 7. Inside a network, there must be some incentives available to govern the exchanges. Agreements reply on negotiations and consensus. 8. Management of networks will be organized according to the strategic interest of the partners and the power structure involved. It can take the form of a formal economic

Toward a Dynamic Theory of Global Production Networks.

abstract Global production networks (GPN) are organizational platforms through which actors in different regional and national economies compete and cooperate for a greater share of value creation, transformation, and capture through geographically dispersed economic activity. Existing conceptual frameworks on global value chains (GVC) and what we term GPN 1.0 tend to under-theorize the origins and dynamics of these organizational platforms and to overemphasize their governance typologies (e.g., modular, relational, and captive modes in GVC theory) or analytical categories (e.g., power and embeddedness in GPN 1.0). Building on this expanding literature, our article aims to contribute toward the reframing of existing GPN-GVC debates and the development of a more dynamic theory of global production networks that can better explain the emergence of different firm-specific activities, strategic network effects, and territorial outcomes in the global economy. It is part of a wider initiative—GPN 2.0 in short—that seeks to offer novel theoretical insights into why and how the organization and coordination of global production networks varies significantly within and across different industries, sectors, and economies. Taking an actor-centered focus toward theory development, we tackle a significant gap in existing work by systematically conceptualizing the causal drivers of global production networks in terms of their competitive dynamics (optimizing cost-capability ratios, market imperatives, and financial discipline) and risk environments. These capitalist dynamics are theorized as critical independent variables that shape the four main strategies adopted by economic actors in (re)configuring their global production networks and, ultimately, the developmental outcomes in different industries, regions, and countries.

Towards a Regional Strategy: The Role of Regional Headquarters of Foreign Firms in Singapore

This paper presents a framework for analysing the role of regional headquarters in the globalisation strategies of transnational corporations (TNCs). Drawing upon a theoretical gap in existing urban studies and international business literature, we argue that the triadisation and regionalisation of TNC activities increase the demand for control and co-ordination functions previously performed by the global headquarters. Many global corporations consequently establish regional headquarters to penetrate into emerging markets, which may be too geographically distant to be co-ordinated and managed by the global HQs, and to achieve simultaneously global integration and local responsiveness. Based upon an empirical survey of 130 RHQs in Singapore and 20 follow-up personal interviews, we test some of the propositions of this regional strategy framework. Our findings tentatively confirm that three independent variables play a statistically significant role in shaping the strategic decision by global corporations to establish RHQs in Singapore: geographical distance, strategic necessity and the availability of business services.

The political economy of transnational corporations: a study of the regionalization of Singaporean firms

Abstract This paper is concerned with the role of the state in promoting the cross-border operations of business firms from Singapore. It argues that the regionalization of Singaporean firms is essentially a state-led phenomenon because of two countervailing forces: (1) the heavy involvement of the state in the domestic economy (2) the relative lack of private entrepreneurship in Singapore. The paper begins with a theoretical review of the role of the state in the political economy of international business. A collusion-and-rivalry framework is established to analyze the case of Singapore. This is then followed by a brief analysis of the trends and patterns of outward foreign direct investment (FDI and transnational corporations (TNCs) from Singapore over the past two decades. The penultimate section examines the nature and extent in which the ‘entrepreneurial state’ in Singapore has directly and indirectly involved in the regionalization of Singaporean TNCs. Three key issues emerge for detail analysis: (1) the historical underdevelopment of indigenous entrepreneurship; (2) the role of the state as entrepreneurs (3) the role of the state in changing the comparative advantage of regionalization through various incentive schemes. Some implications for theoretical development in international business studies and policy making in Singapore are offered in the concluding section.