Herbert B. Greenlee

Cholecystectomy in cirrhotic patients: A formidable operation☆

Cholecystectomy and common bile duct exploration in cirrhotic patients is associated with an 83 percent mortality if prothrombin time is prolonged 2.5 seconds over control. The causes of death are related to complications of liver disease such as hepatic encephalopathy, ascites, sepsis and hemorrhage. If the prothrombin time is prolonged, major intraoperative blood loss can be anticipated, and blood and plasma transfusion requirements may be massive. Jaundice in the presence of cirrhosis requires careful preoperative evaluation and is most frequently due to hepatocellular disease rather than extrahepatic biliary obstruction. Cholecystectomy and common duct exploration in cirrhotic patients should be performed only for life-threatening complications of biliary tract disease such as empyema, perforation and ascending cholangitis.

Pancreatic duct drainage in 100 patients with chronic pancreatitis.

Although the development of islet cell autotransplantation has focused attention on extended resections of the pancreas, drainage of a dilated pancreatic duct remains an effective means of relieving intractable pain of chronic pancreatitis. Between 1954 and 1980, 98 men and two women with chronic pancreatitis were treated for pain with ductal drainage. All patients had a history of chronic alcoholism. Pancreatic calculi were found in 68 patients. Operative procedures included: seven caudal pancreaticojejunostomies, 42 longitudinal pancreaticojejunostomies, and 54 side-to-side pancreaticojejunostomies. Two caudal pancreaticojejunostomies were converted to longitudinal pancreaticojejunostomies, and one longitudinal pancreaticojejunostomy required revision. The operative mortality rate was 4%. Follow-up studies, lasting up to 24 years, were conducted for all but seven patients. Eighty per cent of these patients have had substantial improvement or complete resolution of their pain. Diabetes, as evidenced by an elevated fasting blood sugar level, was present prior to operation in 30% of the patients, and developed after operation in 14%. Only nine of 21 insulin-dependent diabetics in this series did not require insulin prior to pancreaticojejunostomy. Pancreatic enzyme replacement was needed for control of steatorrhea in 18 patients. Four patients with continued pain underwent total or near total pancreatectomies. Three of these patients died of uncontrolled diabetes. Only one patient with a drainage procedure alone has died of uncontrolled diabetes. In patients with dilated pancreatic ducts, pancreaticojejunostomy is a safe, reliable means of providing pain relief, with minimal loss of endocrine and exocrine function

Redrainage of the pancreatic duct in chronic pancreatitis

Recurrent pain after a drainage procedure for chronic pancreatitis is considered an indication for pancreatectomy. To evaluate whether redrainage might be a better alternative, 14 patients who underwent redrainage after a failed pancreaticojejunostomy were reviewed. Patients with previous pseudocyst drainage were excluded. Initial operations included five caudal, three longitudinal, and six side-to-side pancreaticojejunostomies. Nine patients treated since 1974 had ERCP, which showed obstructed segments of pancreatic duct in the head of the gland. Two caudal pancreaticojejunostomies and one longitudinal pancreaticojejunostomy were revised to longitudinal pancreaticojejunostomies. The other 11 were revised to side-to-side pancreaticojejunostomies. Operative findings confirmed undrained segments of the pancreatic duct in the pancreatic head. Postoperatively, one patient died from hemorrhage and four patients had complications. At most recent follow-up from 6 months to 20 years postoperatively, three patients were pain free and six had substantial relief from pain (71 percent). Of eight patients who were not diabetic before redrainage, diabetes developed in only two. Only one of seven patients without pancreatic exocrine insufficiency required pancreatic enzymes after redrainage. Patients with recurrent pain after pancreaticojejunostomy should undergo ERCP. If segments of the pancreatic duct are obstructed, redrainage can provide satisfactory pain relief with a minimal loss of endocrine and exocrine function. This problem is best avoided by initial complete drainage of the major and minor pancreatic ducts.

Pancreatic abscess: An unresolved surgical problem

Twenty patients with pancreatic abscesses were studied to determine if recent diagnostic and therapeutic advances have improved the outlook for those with the disease. An abscess developed as a complication of alcoholic pancreatitis in 10 patients and was due to previous surgery in 9. Ultrasonography and computerized tomographic scanning of the abdomen were helpful in the diagnosis and localization of the abscesses. All 20 patients were treated surgically. Operative mortality was 30 percent and was due to multiple system failure from continuing sepsis. Only 2 of 15 patients who had sump drainage died compared with 3 of 4 patients who were drained with Penrose drains alone. There were two deaths among 10 patients who received nutritional support and four deaths in 10 patients who did not receive hyperalimentation. Pancreatic abscess remains a life-threatening condition. Ultrasonography and computerized tomographic scanning have helped in diagnoses and localization. The addition of sump drainage has reduced the mortality rate from 75 ot 13 percent. Nutritional support also appears to be helpful in reducing mortality.

Therapeutic options for biliary tract disease in advancedcirrhosis

Between 1979 and 1984, 21 male cirrhotic patients with advanced liver disease, cholecystitis, and jaundice were seen. Eight patients had persistent symptoms of acute cholecystitis despite intense symptoms of acute cholecystitis despite intense medical management. Of these patients, five underwent cholecystostomy and survived. The other three patients had cholecystectomy and one died. Thirteen patients presented with jaundice. Twelve patients underwent endoscopic retrograde cholangiography which revealed gallbladder stones in four but no stones in the common bile duct. They did not undergo further surgical procedures. One patient presented with jaundice, cholangitis, and pancreatitis was found to have stones in the common bile duct and underwent endoscopic sphincterotomy with removal of multiple small, pigmented stones. This patient died from sepsis and renal failure 37 days after sphincterotomy. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiography was unsuccessful in four patients who later underwent percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography which revealed stones in one and cirrhotic ductal changes in three. The remaining jaundiced patient underwent cholecystectomy and common bile duct exploration which revealed no ductal stones. This patient died 21 days after operation from sepsis and multiple organ system failure. Three of five patients with gallstones on endoscopic retrograde cholangiography or percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography died, but none of the deaths were due to biliary tract disease. At last follow-up the two surviving patients were asymptomatic. The overall mortality rate was 14 percent (3 of 21 patients). Cholecystostomy in cirrhotic patients with advanced liver disease and acute cholecystitis is associated with minimal mortality and morbidity. Cirrhotic patients with jaundice are probably best evaluated initially by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography which is safe, diagnostic, and sometimes therapeutic.

Neoplastic obstruction of the small and large intestine

Obstructive symptoms due to small bowel tumors are the most common indication of primary malignant disease in the small intestine. Primary obstructing tumors of the small bowel are treated best by resection and primary anastomosis. Malignant lesions of the duodenum sometimes will require pancreaticoduodenectomy and those of the distal ileum, right hemicolectomy. Obstruction due to localized metastatic disease can be treated by resection and primary anastomosis but, more frequently, one or more side-to-side enteroenterostomies will be needed, especially in abdominal carcinomatosis. The complication of LBO due to colorectal cancer is an ominous sign. The less favorable prognosis is a result of the higher operative mortality, advanced stage of disease and lower resectability rate. Obstructing neoplasms of the right side of the colon are treated best by immediate resection and primary anastomosis. Left-sided colon obstruction due to malignancy traditionally is treated by preliminary diversion followed later by definitive resection. Insufficient data are available to evaluate any benefit on operative mortality and long-term survival with a more aggressive approach involving decompression and resection of the obstructing carcinoma at the initial operation. It is doubtful that any marked improvement in current mortality and survival figures will result from wide deviations of the current principles of operative managment. Early diagnosis of the cancer before obstruction occurs remains the primary means of improving survival rates. This involves not only primary means of improving survival rates. This involves not only patient education regarding presenting symptoms, but improvement of physician recognition and response to these complaints so that the appropriate tests are ordered and treatment is initiated.

Peptic ulcer surgery.

Peptic ulcer will affect approximately 10 per cent of the population at one time or another. At times, the complications following peptic ulcer surgery are more distressing to the patient than the original ulcer diathesis. The authors review the diagnosis and management of these postoperative problems.

Adenocarcinoma of the pancreas coexisting with pancreatic abscess

SummaryOf 20 patients treated for pancreatic abscess during the years 1984-1991, two patients were found to have adenocarcinoma of the pancreas associated with their pancreatic abscesses. In one patient an adenocarcinoma of the proximal pancreas caused ductal obstruction, which may have been the primary cause of an abscess distal to the tumor. In the second patient, metastatic adenocarcinoma of the pancreas and a concurrent pancreatic abscess were found when the patient’s abdomen was explored for complications related to gallstone pancreatitis. In both patients, the tumor was unresectable at presentation. A detailed review of these cases is presented as well as a review of the related literature.