Herman Steensma

Future Interaction Expectation and the Use of Soft and Hard Influence Tactics

Les strategies d’influence varient en fonction du controle qu’elles exercent sur la situation et la cible. Les strategies “douces” laissent plus que les strategies “dures” la possibilitie pour la cible d’accepter ou de rejeter la tentative d’influence. La solution “dure” engendre donc generalement une plus grande tension dans la relation entre la cible et l’agent d’influence. Cette recherche est centree sur la consequence que la representation de l’interaction a venir peut avoir sur le choix d l’une ou l’autre strategie. Les resultats d’une experience indiquent que l’expectation d’une interaction diminue l’appel a l’influence en general et aux strategies d’influence dure en particulier. On peur supposer que la perspective d’une interaction prolongee rend moins attractif le choix d’un comportement qui pourrait mettre la relation en danger. Les resultants ont aussi montre que les strategies douces etaient plus employees que les dures et que les homes faisaient plus appel a l’influence que les femmes. The influence tactics that people use may vary in the extent to which they take control over the situation and the target. Soft tactics allow the target of influence more latitude in deciding whether or not to accept the employed influence than hard tactics. As a consequence hard influence tactics usually place more strain on the relationship between influencing agent and target. This study focused on the effect that the expectation of future interaction may have on the use of hard and soft influence tactics. The results of an experiment indicated that the expectation of a future interaction diminished the use of influence in general and of hard influence tactics in particular. Presumably, the expectancy of prolonged interaction made the display of behavior that might endanger the relationship less attractive. Furthermore, results showed that soft tactics were used more often than hard ones and that men employed more influence than women.

Noise within the social context: annoyance reduction through fair procedures.

The social context of noise exposure is a codeterminant of noise annoyance. The present study shows that fairness of the exposure procedure (sound management) can be used as an instrument to reduce noise annoyance. In a laboratory experiment (N = 117) participants are exposed to aircraft sound of different sound pressure level (SPL: 50 vs 70 dB A)--which is experienced as noise--while they work on a reading task. The exposure procedure (fair versus neutral) is modeled in line with findings from social justice theory. In the fair condition, participants can voice their preference for a certain sound sample, although they cannot deduce whether their preference is granted. In the neutral condition, participants are not asked to voice their preference. Results show the predicted interaction effect of sound pressure level and procedure on annoyance: Annoyance ratings are significantly lower in the fair condition than in the neutral condition, but this effect is found only in the 70 dB condition. When the SPL is considerably disturbing, fair procedures reduce noise annoyance. Consequences of the reported findings for both theory and practice are discussed.

Physiological Relaxation: Stress Reduction Through Fair Treatment

The effects of fair treatment on physiological stress reactions of participants in a moderately high or low mental pressure condition are studied. On the basis of Injustice Stress Theory IST; Vermunt, R., and Steensma, H. In: Cropanzano, R. (ed.), Justice in the Workplace (Vol. 2), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 27–48,2001, predictions were made about procedural fairness as stress reducing factor. The results supported the expected effect of fair treatment, in that lower cardiovascular activity was measured after fair treatment but not after unfair treatment. Moreover, three-way interactions showed that participants with type-A behavior in the low mental pressure conditions had lower cardiovascular activity after fair treatment but not after unfair treatment, while participants with type-B behavior showed lower cardiovascular activity after fair treatment in the moderately high mental pressure condition. The discussion focuses on the difference between fair treatment and social support as well as on the several ways to reduce stress by being fair.

What is procedural justice: Criteria used by Dutch victims to assess the fairness of criminal justice procedures

The study examines the meaning of procedural justice to Dutch victims of crime. Using victimological research and the group-value or relational model or procedural justice developed by Lind and Tyler, a model for procedural justice judgments is developed and tested using the structural equation model. Data used for the analysis consist of 221 interviews with victims regarding their experience with the public prosecution. Although the emerging model differs from that of Lind and Tyler, results support Lind and Tylers assertion that procedural justice judgments are normative and not instrumental. Victims are particularly concerned about being treated with dignity and respect and are not interested in influencing the outcome of their case.

Evaluating noise in social context: The effect of procedural unfairness on noise annoyance judgments

General dosage-response curves typically over- or underestimate the actual prevalence of noise annoyance for specific groups of individuals. The present study applies a social psychological approach to noise annoyance that helps to understand and predict collective deflections from the curve. The approach holds that being exposed to man-made sound is more than mere exposure; it is a social experience, too: You expose Me. In effect, social aspects of the situation, like the evaluation of the sound management procedure, influence the evaluation of sound. The laboratory experiment (N=90) investigates the effect of procedural unfairness on noise annoyance. The sound management procedure is varied systematically: Participants are promised they will listen to the sound of their choice (i.e., bird song, radio sound, or aircraft sound) but receive aircraft sound despite their expressed preference (unfair procedure), or they are simply told they will listen to aircraft sound (neutral procedure). All are exposed to aircraft sound (50 or 70 dBA Leq). A collective rise in noise annoyance is predicted in the unfair relative to the neutral procedure conditions. Results show that noise annoyance ratings are significantly higher in the unfair relative to the neutral conditions. Consequences for theory and practice are discussed.

Research note: effects of resilience training on the reduction of stress and depression among Dutch workers.

This study tests the effects of a resilience training program on (former) employees who are suffering from protracted illness due to stress or burnout. Subjects (N = 20) suffering from long-term illness caused by workstress participated in a six-month training program. The program consists of four stages. In all, nine instruments were used to strengthen the resilience of trainees (e.g., meditation, rational insights, etc.). To evaluate the results of the training, trainees filled out two questionnaires (Utrecht Coping List and Becks Depression Inventory) at four points in time, before, during, and at the end of the training period. Trainees demonstrated improvements on effective coping styles and made less use of avoidance and passive reactions. Most trainees were reintegrated successfully in organizations. It is concluded that the resilience training program may be very useful in attempts to reduce the number of (ex-)employees suffering from full or partial disability. Burnout may be cured and/or prevented by participation in the resilience program.

STUDYING EMPLOYEE TURNOVER BY SPLITTING UP THE USUAL COMPARISON GROUP

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate how a mixed method of turnover research, combining advantages of traditional methods while reducing the disadvantages, may improve the fitness-for-use of turnover research for organizations. In a survey study, an exit group of former employees who had left an organization voluntarily was compared with a group of employees who were still working in the organization. Then, the comparison group was split into two subgroups. The true-comparison group was composed of employees who had a low intention of quitting. The potential-turnover group was formed by employees with a high intention of leaving the organization. Results show that, in general, no differences exist between the exit group and the potential-turnover group in mean scores on variables that (according to theory) determine turnover. But the exit group and the true-comparison group differ sharply. Implications for turnover research are discussed. Much of the literature suggests that employee turnover is related to unmet expectations, pre-existing intentions, and notions relating to perceived justice. Our study examines factors associated with employee turnover. However, the main purpose of the study was to demonstrate the advantages of a specific research

Why managers prefer some influence tactics to other tactics: A net utility explanation

This study involved analysis of the preference for, and the actual use of eight influence tactics by managers. Managers (N = 95) filled out questionnaires. As predicted, the expected utilities of tactics were correlated strongly with both actual and preferred frequencies of use of tactics. The expected utilities of specific tactics did not correlate with actual and preferred frequencies of use of all other tactics (with some exceptions).

Social categories, just world belief, locus of control, and causal attributions of occupational accidents

Workers (N=34), managers (N=35) and safety inspectors (N=33) read descriptions of an occupational accident. In one condition, the accident had serious consequences, in the second condition consequences were less severe. Social category has an effect on the attribution of responsibility for the accident. Safety inspectors seem inclined to attribute responsibility to the organization whereas managers attribute the lowest level of responsibility to the organization. A forced-choice method of attributing responsibility shows that seriousness of consequences is important, but only for the workers. If consequences are not very serious, workers do not bother much about who is to blame; but in the case of a serious accident, most workers attribute responsibility to the organization. Locus of control orientation plays a minor role: There is a tendency for “internals” to attribute responsibility to the victim. also, an internal locus of control orientation varies along with the belief that subjects would have acted differently from the victim. The hypothesis that people who strongly believe in a just world attribute most responsibility to the victim was not supported. The hypothesis that people with a high just world belief feel least sympathy for the victim could be accepted. Strength of just world belief correlates negatively with the internal locus of control orientation. Finally, the ad hoc hypothesis that workers have higher standards for fair disability benefits than do managers had to be rejected. Safety inspectors want to pay much less money than do managers and workers. Results are discussed in light of notions from theories on attribution, just world belief, locus of control orientation, and social construction of reality.

Protestant Work Ethic as a Moderator of Mental and Physical Well-Being

This study tested hypotheses about effects of the Protestant Work Ethic on mental and physical well-being. The Protestant Work Ethic was expected to enhance mental and physical well-being and buffer response to adverse work conditions. Blue collar workers (N = 115) filled out questionnaires. As predicted, workers with high scores on a Protestant Work Ethic scale are more satisfied with their jobs than workers with low scores. General health complaints are partly explained by an interaction between Protestant Work Ethic and Job Richness: when jobs lacked Job Richness, employees with a high Protestant Work Ethic report fewer General Health Complaints than employees with a low Protestant Work Ethic. No interaction effect was found of Protestant Work Ethic for the relationship between Physical Working Conditions and well-being.