Hersh C. Waxman

Educational Issues and Effective Practices for Hispanic Students

The educational status of Hispanic1 students in the United States is one of the most challenging educational issues. Although the number of Hispanic students in public schools has increased dramatically in recent decades, Hispanic students as a group have the lowest levels of education and the highest dropout rate. Furthermore, conditions of poverty, health, and other social problems have made it difficult for Hispanics to improve their educational status. This chapter summarizes some of the critical educational problems facing Hispanic students and provides some recommendations to alleviate the problems. The chapter is divided into four major sections. The first section focuses on the educational status of Hispanic students in the United States. The second section discusses factors associated with the underachievement of Hispanic students. This section includes problems associated with: (a) the need for qualified teachers, (b) inappropriate teaching practices, and (c) at-risk school environments. The third section examines factors associated with the success of Hispanic students. It provides a brief summary of instructional strategies, schools, and programs that have been found to significantly improve the academic achievement of Hispanic students. Finally, the chapter addresses some of the recommendations and conclusions from our current knowledge of effective practices and programs for Hispanic students.

Observational Research in U.S. Classrooms: The Uses of the Classroom Observation Schedule to Improve Classroom Instruction

Systematic classroom observation methods have been widely used in the past several decades to investigate effective teaching practices (Brophy & Good, 1986; Stallings & Mohlman, 1988; Waxman, 1995; Waxman & Huang, 1999). One of the most important uses of the method has been to determine which teaching practices improve student learning (Waxman & Huang, 1999). Most classroom observation instruments typically focus on the teacher as the unit of measurement or observation, and thus they describe a variety of instructional behaviors in which teachers engage. There are limitations, however, with teacher-based classroom observation instruments. First, teacher-focused instruments suggest that teaching practices directly impact student outcomes, without acknowledging that student behaviors impact teacher behaviors as well. Another concern with teacher-focused observation systems is that they often ignore student behaviors that have a greater impact on student outcomes than teacher behaviors. Another limitation of teacher-based observation instruments is that they generally do not allow researchers to examine individual student behaviors, particularly differences by critical attributes such as student sex, ethnicity, or grouping classification (e.g., gifted/nongifted, resilient/nonresilient, monolingual/bilingual). A final concern with teacher-centered observation systems is that they are often very threatening to classroom teachers. Many teachers are reluctant to volunteer to participate in classroom observation research because they know the focus of attention is on the teachers and their instructional practices. This chapter describes the uses of a systematic classroom observation instrument, the Classroom Observation Schedule (COS), that was designed to address some of the previous concerns of classroom observation by specifically focusing on individual students rather than the teacher (Waxman, Wang, Lindvall, & Anderson, 1990a, 1990b).

Classroom Instruction and the Mathematics Achievement of Non-English Learners and English Learners.

ABSTRACT The authors, in a nonexperimental randomized study, used national data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) to examine present instructional practices for Grade 5 mathematics classrooms and its impact on achievement for White non-Hispanic non–English language learners (ELLs), Hispanic non-ELLs, and Hispanic English language learners. The following research questions were addressed: (a) Were there significant differences in mathematics instructional practices among White non-Hispanic non-ELLs, Hispanic non-ELLs, and Hispanic-ELLs? (b) What were the effects of the mathematical instructional practices on fifth-grade mathematics achievement for these groups? Findings reveal that students’ mathematics achievement in previous grades directly impacted students’ achievement in future grades. Findings also demonstrated limited variance in the instructional practices used by teachers.

Resilient and Nonresilient Hispanic English Language Learners' Attitudes Toward Their Classroom Learning Environment in Mathematics

This study examines resilient and nonresilient characteristics in mathematics among Hispanic students in a major metropolitan city located in the south central region of the United States. The study examined data from semistructure interviews of 118 resilient and nonresilient English language learners (ELLs) in 4th and 5th grade. The interviews focused on a variety of factors including: (a) individual attributes (e.g., students’ motivation); (b) school and classroom factors (e.g., satisfaction, involvement, and affiliation); (c) family factors (e.g., parent involvement in academics); and (d) students’ use of time (e.g., doing homework). Additional indicators that were examined include help-seeking behaviors and skills that allow students to cope with academic difficulties. Overall, the findings indicate significant differences between resilient and nonresilient students on academic performance and their self-efficacy on perceived mathematical abilities. Significant differences were also found in the home learning environment, indicating that resilient students receive more assistance at home on academic tasks than non-resilient students.

A Classroom Observational Study of Qatar's Independent Schools: Instruction and School Reform.

ABSTRACT Qatar initiated a K–12 national educational reform in 2001. However, there is limited information on the instructional practices of the teachers in the reform schools. This project was an observational study of classrooms with a stratified random sample of the first six cohorts of reform schools. Specifically, 156 classrooms were observed in 29 reform schools. Instructional differences were noted in schools with different gender of students and were moderated by school level. Implications of findings were discussed pertaining to implementation of the Qatar national reform and professional development needs of teachers.

Investigating Bilingual/ESL Teachers' Knowledge and Professional Development Opportunities in a Large Suburban School District in Texas.

Despite the fact that the population of English Language Learners (ELLs) is rapidly increasing, there is ample evidence that indicates that most teachers can benefit from training for teaching ELLs effectively. The purpose of this study is to examine teachers’ knowledge of instructional practices for ELLs, research on bilingual programs, research-based instructional strategies, and knowledge related to second-language development among 225 bilingual/English as Second Language (ESL) teachers in a large suburban school district in Texas. Additionally, because professional development (PD) plays a key role in teachers’ knowledge, this study considers the PD opportunities provided to teachers of ELLs. Findings indicated that many teachers of ELLs are not receiving adequate training, particularly in areas related to bilingual education and knowledge related to second-language development, and that bilingual teachers are more knowledgeable than ESL teachers in terms of bilingual programs and knowledge related to second-language development. These findings have important implications for teacher PD.

Research-Based Approaches for Identifying and Assessing Effective Teaching Practices

Research has found that having an effective teacher is one of the most influential factors that improve students’ academic achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2011). Unfortunately, the inequitable distribution of highquality teachers within and across schools is one of our most serious educational problems (Darling-Hammond, 2010, 2011; Rothman, 2009; Waxman, Padron, Shin, & Rivera, 2008).

The relationships among high school STEM learning experiences, expectations, and mathematics and science efficacy and the likelihood of majoring in STEM in college

ABSTRACT This study examines college students’ science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) choices as they relate to high school experiences, parent, teacher, and self-expectations, and mathematics and science efficacy. Participants were 2246 graduates of a STEM-focused public Harmony Public Schools in Texas, Harmony Public Schools (HPS). Descriptive analyses indicated that the overall percentage of HPS graduates who chose a STEM major in college was greater than Texas state and national averages. Logistic regression analyses revealed that males and Asian students are more likely to choose a STEM major in college than females and non-Asian students, respectively. Moreover, students whose parents had a college degree in the U.S. are more likely to major in STEM fields than those who did not. Furthermore, males with higher mathematics efficacy and females with higher science efficacy are more likely to choose a STEM major than their counterparts with lower mathematics and science efficacy.

The Effects of GO Centers on Creating a College Culture in Urban High Schools in Texas.

Despite a generation of efforts to make higher education an achievable goal for all students, the gap in college participation rates between low-income and high-income students has not narrowed. Moreover, students of color continue to be underrepresented on postsecondary campuses. Early intervention efforts and college outreach programs such as college access centers have been identified as exemplary strategies for encouraging a college-going culture in high schools and in decreasing the gap among racial/ ethnic groups who have access to college. This study examined the effectiveness of enhanced college access centers known as GO Centers in assisting students during their preparation and application for college and in providing activities conducive to the development of a college-going culture in eight comprehensive high schools located in a large urban school district. Findings indicate that the enhanced GO Centers demonstrate four aspects identified as important in encouraging a college-going culture in a high school: The centers (a) are inclusive and accessible to all students; (b) demonstrate an understanding of how students develop aspirations and plans to attend college; (c) offer comprehensive services to students and their families, including guidance in preparing for college, applying for college, and accessing financial aid; and (d) employ a systematic approach involving stakeholders.

Classroom Learning Environment Differences Between Resilient, Average, and Nonresilient Middle School Students in Reading:

The lack of achievement of students from high-risk and high-poverty environments necessitates changes in today’s middle school environments to create a caring, supportive environment where all middle school students can succeed. This study investigated the classroom learning environments of resilient, average, and nonresilient minority students in middle school reading classrooms. A total of 1,295 seventh- and eighth-grade minority students were administered an adapted version of the My Class Inventory. The results revealed that resilient students had more positive perceptions of their reading class than average and nonresilient students. On the other hand, nonresilient students perceived their reading class to be more difficult and have more friction than average and resilient students. Further research is needed in this area that examines specific ways that teachers can improve the learning environments for nonresilient students without diminishing the more supportive learning environment that currently exists for other students in their classes.