Hidenori Otera

Mitochondrial fission factor Drp1 is essential for embryonic development and synapse formation in mice

Mitochondrial morphology is dynamically controlled by a balance between fusion and fission. The physiological importance of mitochondrial fission in vertebrates is less clearly defined than that of mitochondrial fusion. Here we show that mice lacking the mitochondrial fission GTPase Drp1 have developmental abnormalities, particularly in the forebrain, and die after embryonic day 12.5. Neural cell-specific (NS) Drp1−/− mice die shortly after birth as a result of brain hypoplasia with apoptosis. Primary culture of NS-Drp1−/− mouse forebrain showed a decreased number of neurites and defective synapse formation, thought to be due to aggregated mitochondria that failed to distribute properly within the cell processes. These defects were reflected by abnormal forebrain development and highlight the importance of Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fission within highly polarized cells such as neurons. Moreover, Drp1−/− murine embryonic fibroblasts and embryonic stem cells revealed that Drp1 is required for a normal rate of cytochrome c release and caspase activation during apoptosis, although mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization, as examined by the release of Smac/Diablo and Tim8a, may occur independently of Drp1 activity.

Mff is an essential factor for mitochondrial recruitment of Drp1 during mitochondrial fission in mammalian cells

Localization of the dynamin-related GTPase Drp1 to mitochondria relies on the mitochondrial fission factor Mff.

Export of mitochondrial AIF in response to proapoptotic stimuli depends on processing at the intermembrane space

Apoptosis‐inducing factor (AIF) is a mitochondrial intermembrane flavoprotein that is translocated to the nucleus in response to proapoptotic stimuli, where it induces nuclear apoptosis. Here we show that AIF is synthesized as an ∼67‐kDa preprotein with an N‐terminal extension and imported into mitochondria, where it is processed to the ∼62‐kDa mature form. Topology analysis revealed that mature AIF is a type‐I inner membrane protein with the N‐terminus exposed to the matrix and the C‐terminal portion to the intermembrane space. Upon induction of apoptosis, processing of mature AIF to an ∼57‐kDa form occurred caspase‐independently in the intermembrane space, releasing the processed form into the cytoplasm. Bcl‐2 or Bcl‐XL inhibited both these events. These findings indicate that AIF release from mitochondria occurs by a two‐step process: detachment from the inner membrane by apoptosis‐induced processing in the intermembrane space and translocation into the cytoplasm. The results also suggest the presence of a unique protease that is regulated by proapoptotic stimuli in caspase‐independent cell death.

New insights into the function and regulation of mitochondrial fission

Mitochondrial morphology changes dynamically by coordinated fusion and fission and cytoskeleton-based transport. Cycles of outer and inner membrane fusion and fission are required for the exchange of damaged mitochondrial genome DNA, proteins, and lipids with those of healthy mitochondria to maintain robust mitochondrial structure and function. These dynamics are crucial for cellular life and death, because they are essential for cellular development and homeostasis, as well as apoptosis. Disruption of these functions leads to cellular dysfunction, resulting in neurologic disorders and metabolic diseases. The cytoplasmic dynamin-related GTPase Drp1 plays a key role in mitochondrial fission, while Mfn1, Mfn2 and Opa1 are involved in fusion reaction. Here, we review current knowledge regarding the regulation and physiologic relevance of Drp1-dependent mitochondrial fission: the initial recruitment and assembly of Drp1 on the mitochondrial fission foci, regulation of Drp1 activity by post-translational modifications, and the role of mitochondrial fission in cell pathophysiology.

Peroxisome targeting signal type 1 (PTS1) receptor is involved in import of both PTS1 and PTS2 : studies with PEX5-defective CHO cell mutants

ABSTRACT To investigate the mechanisms of peroxisome assembly and the molecular basis of peroxisome assembly disorders, we isolated and characterized a peroxisome-deficient CHO cell mutant, ZP139, which was found to belong to human complementation group II, the same group as that of our earlier mutant, ZP105. These mutants had a phenotypic deficiency in the import of peroxisomal targeting signal type 1 (PTS1) proteins. Amino-terminal extension signal (PTS2)-mediated transport, including that of 3-ketoacyl coenzyme A thiolase, was also defective in ZP105 but not in ZP139. PEX5 cDNA, encoding the PTS1 receptor (PTS1R), was isolated from wild-type CHO-K1 cells. PTS1R’s deduced primary sequence comprised 595 amino acids, 7 amino acids less than the human homolog, and contained seven tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) motifs at the C-terminal region. Chinese hamster PTS1R showed 94, 28, and 24% amino acid identity with PTS1Rs from humans, Pichia pastoris, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, respectively. A PTS1R isoform (PTS1RL) with 632 amino acid residues was identified in CHO cells; for PTS1R, 37 amino acids were inserted between residues at positions 215 and 216 of a shorter isoform (PTS1RS). Southern blot analysis of CHO cell genomic DNA suggested that these two isoforms are derived from a single gene. Both types of PEX5 complemented impaired import of PTS1 in mutants ZP105 and ZP139. PTS2 import in ZP105 was rescued only by PTS1RL. This finding strongly suggests that PTS1RL is also involved in the transport of PTS2. Mutations inPEX5 were determined by reverse transcription-PCR: a G-to-A transition resulted in one amino acid substitution: Gly298Glu of PTS1RS (G335E of PTS1RL) in ZP105 and Gly485Glu of PTS1RS (G522E of PTS1RL) in ZP139. Both mutations were in the TPR domains (TPR1 and TPR6), suggesting the functional consequence of these domains in protein translocation. The implications of these mutations are discussed.

Peroxisomal Targeting Signal Receptor Pex5p Interacts with Cargoes and Import Machinery Components in a Spatiotemporally Differentiated Manner: Conserved Pex5p WXXXF/Y Motifs Are Critical for Matrix Protein Import

ABSTRACT Two isoforms of the peroxisomal targeting signal type 1 (PTS1) receptor, termed Pex5pS and (37-amino-acid-longer) Pex5pL, are expressed in mammals. Pex5pL transports PTS1 proteins and Pex7p-PTS2 cargo complexes to the initial Pex5p-docking site, Pex14p, on peroxisome membranes, while Pex5pS translocates only PTS1 cargoes. Here we report functional Pex5p domains responsible for interaction with peroxins Pex7p, Pex13p, and Pex14p. An N-terminal half, such as Pex5pL(1-243), comprising amino acid residues 1 to 243, bound to Pex7p, Pex13p, and Pex14p and was sufficient for restoring the impaired PTS2 import of pex5 cell mutants, while the C-terminal tetratricopeptide repeat motifs were required for PTS1 binding. N-terminal Pex5p possessed multiple Pex14p-binding sites. Alanine-scanning analysis of the highly conserved seven (six in Pex5pS) pentapeptide WXXXF/Y motifs residing at the N-terminal region indicated that these motifs were essential for the interaction of Pex5p with Pex14p and Pex13p. Moreover, mutation of several WXXXF/Y motifs did not affect the PTS import-restoring activity of Pex5p, implying that the binding of Pex14p to all of the WXXXF/Y sites was not a prerequisite for the translocation of Pex5p-cargo complexes. Pex5p bound to Pex13p at the N-terminal part, not to the C-terminal SH3 region, via WXXXF/Y motifs 2 to 4. PTS1 and PTS2 import required the interaction of Pex5p with Pex14p but not with Pex13p, while Pex5p binding to Pex13p was essential for import of catalase with PTS1-like signal KANL. Pex5p recruited PTS1 proteins to Pex14p but not to Pex13p. Pex14p and Pex13p formed a complex with PTS1-loaded Pex5p but dissociated in the presence of cargo-unloaded Pex5p, implying that PTS cargoes are released from Pex5p at a step downstream of Pex14p and upstream of Pex13p. Thus, Pex14p and Pex13p very likely form mutually and temporally distinct subcomplexes involved in peroxisomal matrix protein import.

Molecular mechanisms and physiologic functions of mitochondrial dynamics

Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles that continuously change their shape through frequent fusion, fission and movement throughout the cell, and these dynamics are crucial for the life and death of the cells as they have been linked to apoptosis, maintenance of cellular homeostasis, and ultimately to neurologic disorders and metabolic diseases. Over the past decade, a growing number of novel proteins that regulate mitochondrial dynamics have been discovered. Large GTPase family proteins and their regulators control these aspects of mitochondrial dynamics. In this review, we briefly summarize the current knowledge about molecular machineries regulating mitochondrial fusion/fission and the role of mitochondrial dynamics in cell pathophysiology.

The Peroxin Pex14p cDNA CLONING BY FUNCTIONAL COMPLEMENTATION ON A CHINESE HAMSTER OVARY CELL MUTANT, CHARACTERIZATION, AND FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

Rat cDNA encoding a 376-amino acid peroxin was isolated by functional complementation of a peroxisome-deficient Chinese hamster ovary cell mutant, ZP110, of complementation group 14 (CG14). The primary sequence showed 28 and 24% amino acid identity with the yeast Pex14p from Hansenula polymorpha andSaccharomyces cerevisiae, respectively; therefore, we termed this cDNA rat PEX14 (RnPEX14). Human and Chinese hamster Pex14p showed 96 and 94% identity to rat Pex14p, except that both Pex14p comprised 377 amino acids. Pex14p was characterized as an integral membrane protein of peroxisomes, exposing its N- and C-terminal parts to the cytosol. Pex14p interacts with both Pex5p and Pex7p, the receptors for peroxisome targeting signal type 1 (PTS1) and PTS2, respectively, together with the receptors’ cargoes, PTS1 and PTS2 proteins. Mutation in PEX14 from ZP161, the same CG as ZP110, was determined by reverse transcription-PCR as follows. A 133-base pair deletion at nucleotide residues 37–169 in one allele created a termination codon at 40–42; in addition to this mutation, 103 base pairs were deleted at positions 385–487, resulting in the second termination immediately downstream the second deletion site in the other allele. Neither of these two mutant forms of Pex14p restored peroxisome biogenesis in ZP110 and ZP161, thereby demonstrating PEX14 to be responsible for peroxisome deficiency in CG14.

Cytosolic factor- and TOM-independent import of C-tail-anchored mitochondrial outer membrane proteins

C‐tail‐anchored (C‐TA) proteins are anchored to specific organelle membranes by a single transmembrane segment (TMS) at the C‐terminus, extruding the N‐terminal functional domains into the cytoplasm in which the TMS and following basic segment function as the membrane‐targeting signals. Here, we analyzed the import route of mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM) C‐TA proteins, Bak, Bcl‐XL, and Omp25, using digitonin‐permeabilized HeLa cells, which provide specific and efficient import under competitive conditions. These experiments revealed that (i) C‐TA proteins were imported to the MOM through a common pathway independent of the components of the preprotein translocase of the outer membrane, (ii) the C‐TA protein‐targeting signal functioned autonomously in the absence of cytoplasmic factors that specifically recognize the targeting signals and deliver the preproteins to the MOM, (iii) the function of a cytoplasmic chaperone was required if the cytoplasmic domains of the C‐TA proteins assumed an import‐incompetent conformation, and intriguingly, (iv) the MOM‐targeting signal of Bak, in the context of the Bak molecule, required activation by the interaction of its cytoplasmic domain with VDAC2 before MOM targeting.

A novel insertion pathway of mitochondrial outer membrane proteins with multiple transmembrane segments

The central channel Tom40 of the preprotein translocase of outer membrane (TOM) complex is thought to be responsible for the import of virtually all preproteins synthesized outside the mitochondria. In this study, we analyze the topogenesis of the peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR), which integrates into the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM) through five hydrophobic transmembrane segments (TMSs) and functions in cholesterol import into the inner membrane. Analyses of in vitro and in vivo import into TOM component–depleted mitochondria reveal that PBR import (1) depends on the import receptor Tom70 but requires neither the Tom20 and Tom22 import receptors nor the import channel Tom40, (2) shares the post-Tom70 pathway with the C-tail–anchored proteins, and (3) requires factors of the mitochondrial intermembrane space. Furthermore, membrane integration of mitofusins and mitochondrial ubiquitin ligase, the MOM proteins with two and four TMSs, respectively, proceeds through the same initial pathway. These findings reveal a previously unidentified pathway of the membrane integration of MOM proteins with multiple TMSs.