Holley S. Hodgins

Apology versus defense: Antecedents and consequences

Participants imagined themselves in face-threatening predicaments in two studies that examined the reproach and evaluation phases of predicament management. In Study 1, participants gave accounts of their behavior after receiving hypothetical reproaches that were mild/moderate or severe. Results showed that reproach severity influenced perpetrator accounts in opposite ways for females and males. Male perpetrators became more defensive under severe reproach, whereas females became less defensive. Expectations for a future relationship were more negative under severe reproach, and this was more pronounced when the victim was an acquaintance rather than a friend. Individuals high in Self-Determination were less defensive under mild/moderate reproach, but not under severe reproach. In Study 2, participants gave evaluations after receiving hypothetical accounts that varied in responsibility-taking. Results showed that greater responsibility-taking led to more positive victim evaluations and better expected future relationships. The advantage of responsibility-taking was especially pronounced when the perpetrator was a friend, suggesting that friends are forgiven more than acquaintances when they take responsibility and apologize, but not if they fail to do so. Results are interpreted in terms of reciprocal facework and thresholds for face threat.

Autonomy and control motivation and self-esteem

Two studies examined the hypothesis that primed autonomy and control motivations would influence self-esteem (SE) in the direction of autonomy increasing and control decreasing SE. Explicit, implicit, and defensive (i.e., the discrepancy between implicit and explicit) SE were measured. Results confirmed the hypothesis for implicit and for defensive SE. There were substantial sex differences, with men showing greater reactivity to motivation priming and threat than women. Results are interpreted in terms of a self-determination theory view of motivation and SE (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

The Cost of Self-Protection: Threat Response and Performance as a Function of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations

Seventy-seven undergraduates, primed for autonomous or controlled motivation, were videotaped and physiologically monitored during a stressful interview and subsequent speech. Interview videotapes were coded for behavioral measures of threat response; speech videotapes were coded for performance. It was hypothesized that relative to controlled motivation, autonomous motivation would decrease interview threat response and enhance speech performance, and that threat response would mediate the effect of motivation on performance. Results support the prediction across measures of verbal, paralinguistic, smiling, vocal fundamental frequency, and cardiovascular response. Autonomously primed participants continued to show less cardiovascular threat throughout the later speech and gave better speeches. Finally, speech performance was mediated by interview threat response. Results demonstrate that relative to controlled motivation, autonomous motivation lowers threat response, which enhances performance.

The Moderating Role of Autonomy and Control on the Benefits of Written Emotion Expression

Two studies examined the hypothesis that relative to control motivation, autonomy motivation is associated with effective written expression and regulation, leading to positive emotional, physical, and cognitive outcomes over time. Participants viewed a Hiroshima—Nagasaki documentary in each of two sessions. Study 1 showed that dispositionally autonomous participants, particularly those who expressed, had positive well-being, energy, and memory after the second viewing. Study 2 explored benefits of situational motivation by priming autonomy and control. Results showed that dispositionally controlled individuals received the same benefits as autonomous individuals only when primed with autonomy and encouraged to express. Coding of writing content revealed that the benefits of autonomy were mediated by nondefensive and effective emotional processing, as reflected in greater use of self-referencing and cognitive mechanism words and lower use of concrete words. Results support the expectation that autonomy relates to effective expression and emotion regulation, leading to positive functioning over time.

Autonomy and Control in Dyads: Effects on Interaction Quality and Joint Creative Performance

Two studies examined interaction quality and joint performance on two creative tasks in unacquainted dyads primed for autonomy or control orientations. It was hypothesized that autonomy-primed dyads would interact more constructively, experience more positive mood, and engage the task more readily, and as a result these dyads would perform better. To test this, Study 1 primed orientation and explored verbal creative performance on the Remote Associates Task (RAT). In Study 2, dyads were primed with autonomy and control orientation and videotaped during two joint creative tasks, one verbal (RAT) and one nonverbal (charades). Videotapes were coded for behavioral indicators of closeness and task engagement. Results showed that autonomy-primed dyads felt closer, were more emotionally and cognitively attuned, provided empathy and encouragement to partners, and performed more effectively. The effects of primed autonomy on creative performance were mediated by interpersonal quality, mood, and joint engagement.

Humor as aggression: Effects of motivation on hostility expressed in humor appreciation

In 4 studies, the authors examined the hypothesis that relative to primed autonomy motivation, primed control would increase enjoyment of hostile (compared with nonhostile) humor as assessed by self-reported enjoyment and aversiveness and by nonverbal behavior. Results confirmed the hypothesis. Furthermore, initial state hostility moderated the effect such that high-hostility participants who were primed with control motivation especially enjoyed hostile humor. The 2 final studies showed that the effect was mediated by implicit aggression such that the combination of high initial state hostility and control priming led to implicit aggression, which in turn resulted in hostile humor enjoyment. Results are interpreted in terms of the effects of autonomy versus control motivation on intrapersonal self-regulatory processes, which influence interpersonal functioning.

Interparental Violence and Nonverbal Abilities

Nonverbal decoding and encoding abilities of undergraduates were examined as a function of their self-reported history of interparental violence. Students exposed to domestic violence showed decoding and encoding deficits. Results for decoding revealed an emotion-specific deficit for recognizing happiness but no evidence for an advantage in decoding anger and fear. In contrast, students from violent homes showed overall deficits in posed encoding of emotions. There was no evidence for an emotion-specific encoding bias in the pattern of false negatives and no evidence for suppression of general expressiveness. Hence, it appears that the encoding deficit of students from violent homes is a result of inappropriate encoding. Results are discussed in terms of past theoretical explanations for the influence of family environment on nonverbal abilities.

Masculine traits and reports of social functioning: Evidence for a positivity bias

Previous reviews have concluded that there is a significant positive relation between masculine traits and measures of adjustment, including social adjustment. It is suggested that this relation be viewed with caution because it is based on studies that have relied on only one type of personality data—self-reports of ones own behavior, feelings, and personality characteristics. The recent study by Aube et al. (1994) suggests that the inclusion of other kinds of data, such as peer reports or behavioral observation, may yield different results. Two experiments (participants were predominately white) were conducted to examine the relation of self-reported masculine traits to subjective vs. objective indicators of social functioning. Study 1 found that masculine traits were significantly positively associated with self-reported popularity of teenagers, but that these same traits were unrelated to sociometric ratings made by classmates. Study 2 found that masculine traits were significantly associated with reporting better social-expressive skills among college students, but that these traits were unrelated to actual performance on a test of nonverbal encoding skills. Both studies found significant relations between masculine traits and discrepancy scores calculated between the subjective and objective indicators of social functioning. Together, these studies suggest that the relation between masculine traits and better adjustment may be more perceived than real.

The Origins of Nonverbal Sensitivity

A prospective longitudinal design was used to examine the relation between temperament and early parenting variables at age 5 and sensitivity to nonverbal cues at age 31 as measured by the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS). The results showed that 26% of the variance in adult nonverbal sensitivity was accounted for by the childhood variables. Three predictors contributed to good adult decoding skills: easy child temperament, parental harmony, and moderate father strictness. Temperament accounted for the largest percentage of unique variance in adult nonverbal sensitivity (8.8%). No sex differences were found.

On the Flexibility of the Automatic Us-Them Divide

We examine the “us-them divide” from a motivational perspective, and suggest that the psychological processes underlying the us-them divide can be conceptualized as occurring in two steps. The first step involves a basic social cognitive distinction between different groups, and does not contain bias, whereas the second step involves motivated, anxiety-reduction strategies that elevate the self (or ingroup) and devalue the other (or outgroup). We propose that potential variability in the second step psychological processes allows for flexibility in us-them divide, and allows humans to function with relatively less us-them divide. Three theoretical perspectives are reviewed that can account for attenuated other-derogation in the us-them divide including self-determination theory, Crocker’s interpersonal goal approach, and a Buddhist perspective of self.