Hossein Azadi

Genetically Modified and Organic Crops in Developing Countries: A Review of Options for Food Security

Since two decades ago, when the first GM crops were introduced, there have increasingly been hot debates on the applications of gene manipulation. Currently, the development of GM crop varieties has raised a wide range of new legal, ethical and economic questions in agriculture. There is a growing body of literature reflecting the socio-economic and environmental impacts of GM crops which aims to criticize their value for farming systems. While organic crops are promoted as environmentally-friendly products in developed countries, they have provoked great controversy in developing countries facing food security and a low agricultural productivity. Discussion has been especially vigorous when organic farming was introduced as an alternative method. There are in fact, a few tradeoffs in developing countries. On the one hand, farmers are encouraged to accept and implement GM crops because of their higher productivity, while on the other hand, organic farming is encouraged because of socio-economic and environmental considerations. A crucial question facing such countries is therefore, whether GM crops can co-exist with organic farming. This paper aims to review the main considerations and tradeoffs.

Benefits of Bt cotton counterbalanced by secondary pests? Perceptions of ecological change in China

In the past, scientific research has predicted a decrease in the effectiveness of Bt cotton due to the rise of secondary and other sucking pests. It is suspected that once the primary pest is brought under control, secondary pests have a chance to emerge due to the lower pesticide applications in Bt cotton cultivars. Studies on this phenomenon are scarce. This article furnishes empirical evidence that farmers in China perceive a substantial increase in secondary pests after the introduction of Bt cotton. The research is based on a survey of 1,000 randomly selected farm households in five provinces in China. We found that the reduction in pesticide use in Bt cotton cultivars is significantly lower than that reported in research elsewhere. This is consistent with the hypothesis suggested by recent studies that more pesticide sprayings are needed over time to control emerging secondary pests, such as aphids, spider mites, and lygus bugs. Apart from farmers’ perceptions of secondary pests, we also assessed their basic knowledge of Bt cotton and their perceptions of Bt cotton in terms of its strengths and shortcomings (e.g., effectiveness, productivity, price, and pesticide use) in comparison with non-transgenic cotton.

Application of GM crops in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons learned from Green Revolution

While the Green Revolution has been successful in some regions like South and East Asia, it could hardly address any achievement in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This paper tries to draw a picture on lessons learned from the failures of this revolution that should be taken into account before implementing the so-called Gene Revolution in the SSA region. After scrutinizing the failures and the pros and cons of GM crops in the region, the paper introduces some potentials for improving the malnutrition situation in SSA through launching a successful GM technology. However, it remains doubtful whether this technology can improve the situation of small-scale farmers as long as they receive no financial support from their national governments. Therefore, before any intervention, the socio-economic and environmental impacts of GM technology need to be carefully addressed in the framework of a series of risk assessment studies. Besides, some sort of multi-stakeholder dialog (from small-scale farmers to consumers) involving public-private sector and non-governmental organizations should be heated up at both national and regional levels with regard to the myths and truths of this technology.

GM crops in Ethiopia: a realistic way to increase agricultural performance?

Much has been published on the application of genetically modified (GM) crops in Africa, but agricultural performance has hardly been addressed. This paper discusses the main consequences of GM crops on agricultural performance in Ethiopia. Three main criteria of performance - productivity, equitability and sustainability - are evaluated in the context of the Ethiopian agricultural sector. We conclude that the application of GM crops can improve the agricultural productivity and sustainability, whereas equitability cannot be stimulated and might even exacerbate the gap between socioeconomic classes. Before introducing GM crops to Ethiopian agriculture, regulatory issues should be addressed, public research should be fostered, and more ex ante values and socioeconomic studies should be included.

Knowledge, attitudes and behavioral intentions of agricultural professionals toward genetically modified (GM) foods: a case study in Southwest Iran.

While there has been a number of consumers’ studies looking at factors that influence individuals’ attitudes and behavior toward GM foods, few studies have considered agricultural professionals’ intentions in this regard. This study illuminates agricultural professionals’ insights toward GM foods in Southwest Iran. A random sample of 262 respondents was studied. The results indicated that the majority of the respondents had little knowledge about GM foods. They perceived few benefits or risks of GM foods. Their perceived benefits and trust in individuals and institutions had positive impacts on the behavioral intentions of the agricultural professionals. The results also revealed that the low knowledge level of the respondents had a negative impact on the behavioral intentions toward GM foods. This state of affairs is problematic, either GM foods have serious problems or the knowledge conveyed to the Iranian agricultural experts is inappropriate. We recommend a well defined communication strategy to provide information in such a way that allows individuals to feel adequately informed about GM foods. Furthermore, the development of trust and knowledge regarding GM foods can be greater when risk analysis frameworks are transparent, risk assessment methodologies are objective, all stakeholders are engaged in the risk management process, and risk communication focuses on consumers.

Global assessment of technological innovation for climate change adaptation and mitigation in developing world.

Concerns about mitigating and adapting to climate change resulted in renewing the incentive for agricultural research investments and developing further innovation priorities around the world particularly in developing countries. In the near future, development of new agricultural measures and proper diffusion of technologies will greatly influence the ability of farmers in adaptation and mitigation to climate change. Using bibliometric approaches through output of academic journal publications and patent-based data, we assess the impact of research and development (R&D) for new and existing technologies within the context of climate change mitigation and adaptation. We show that many developing countries invest limited resources for R&D in relevant technologies that have great potential for mitigation and adaption in agricultural production. We also discuss constraints including weak infrastructure, limited research capacity, lack of credit facilities and technology transfer that may hinder the application of innovation in tackling the challenges of climate change. A range of policy measures is also suggested to overcome identified constraints and to ensure that potentials of innovation for climate change mitigation and adaptation are realized.

Agricultural outsourcing or land grabbing: a meta-analysis

ContextThe phenomenon of known as ‘land grabbing’ is not a new process. Especially, since the 1990s, some capital-rich countries have started to buy or lease foreign lands to be able to produce food and biofuels.ObjectivesThis article aimed at investigating the (un)sustainability of ‘transnational land deals’ (TLDs) for investors, host governments and local communities. Given the three dimensions of sustainability, the “social acceptability”, “economic viability” and “environmental conservation” of the TLDs have been studied.MethodsTo understand whether and to what extent the TLD is sustainable in each dimension a meta-analysis was conducted on 73 journal articles.ResultsResults showed that tenure arrangements and livelihoods were the main drivers for the matter’s social acceptability. Accordingly, local communities are affected by losing and receiving little or no compensation for their land, and making them have to face the increasing vulnerability of their livelihoods. This results in a win–win–loss situation for investors, host governments and local communities, respectively. Economic (un)sustainability mainly depends on capital flow, infrastructure and employment. This aspect is evidenced as a win for investors and host governments and implies the aforementioned win–win–loss situation. The main aspects of environmental (un)sustainability are considered as biodiversity, ecosystem services, and climate change.ConclusionsAccording to the results, both host governments and local communities experience loss. This results in a win–loss–loss status of the TLDs. The major challenge remains in establishing good land governance, which can guarantee the benefits to local people and their access to land.

Organic agriculture and undernourishment in developing countries: main potentials and challenges.

While much has been published on the advantages of organic agriculture, less has addressed its potentials and challenges to fight undernourishment in developing countries. This article aims at reviewing the main potentials and challenges of this approach when dealing with “undernourishment” as a multifaceted concept in developing countries. Accordingly, 2 main issues of the concept which are “food security” and “food safety” are discussed in the context of both developed and developing countries to understand their different food policies’ priorities. Next, the main potentials, challenges and tradeoffs of the organic approach are analyzed to understand whether the approach is capable to provide a secure or a safe food-production system which can meet the food policy priorities in developing countries. With respect to food security, the article concludes that conventional and biotechnological approaches still produce higher yields than organic agriculture. However, considering the many advantages of organic agriculture, it can in a long run, be more conducive than now to meet food security. Thus, conventional approaches to feed the hungers in developing countries. Accordingly, the article emphasizes on the importance of providing farmers in developing countries with the possibility of implementing different approaches. Therefore, policy makers should be aware of a realistic and gradual transition from the other approaches to the organic that should be projected only in “long run,” and after conducting a series of risk assessment studies on the bases of both “crop-case” and “region-case.”

Comparative study of agricultural extension systems A systemic view

An increasing volume of literature deals with different meanings of the term ‘extension’ due to the many different agricultural extension systems (AESs) in use. Acknowledging the diversity of AESs, the authors recognize that there is usually a bias towards some specific aspect of these interventions that indicates a need to consider a systemic framework for comparative studies. The main purpose of this contribution is therefore to identify such a systemic view, which could be applied to comparative studies of AESs. Three levels of analysis should be scrutinized for considering a systemic view: micro (institutional), meso (national) and macro (international). At the most basic level, all AESs are involved in both intra-actions and interactions of the extension institution. For this reason, the aim of many studies has been to evaluate the institutional functions of extension practices. The functions at this lowest level are used to predict not only how extension professionals think and act, but how they react to their different target groups. The main question at the micro level is therefore to understand how a country can reach its agri-rural development goals through extension institutions and what institutional arrangements and funding trends help to achieve those goals. At the meso level, the most important considerations are national expectations, which lead to governmental support for or restrictions on the extension institution. Socioeconomic conditions and their consequences largely determine what the extension tasks should be. The main question at this level is why a country needs extension services, which define the different missions for them in different countries. Finally, at the macro level of analysis, it is important first to consider international components and their impact on the level of socioeconomic development of particular countries and, then, the extension missions. The main issue at this level is therefore to understand what international forces and considerations affect the present situation of a country and hence create new expectations of the extension system.

Genetically Modified Crops: Towards Agricultural Growth, Agricultural Development, or Agricultural Sustainability?

The present debate on how to increase global food production in a sustainable way has focused on arguments over the pros and cons of genetically modified (GM) crops. Scientists in both public and private sectors clearly regard GM technology as a major new set of tools, whereas industry sees it as an opportunity for increased profits. However, it remains questionable whether GM crops can contribute to agricultural growth, agricultural development, and agricultural sustainability. This review paper examines and discusses the role of GM crops in agricultural growth, agricultural development, and agricultural sustainability. Although the contribution of GM crops to agriculture productivity is obvious in certain regions, their contributions to agricultural development and sustainability remain uncertain.