Hossein Nassaji

L2 Vocabulary Learning From Context: Strategies, Knowledge Sources, and Their Relationship With Success in L2 Lexical Inferencing

This study examines the use of strategies and knowledge sources in L2 lexical inferencing and their relationship with inferential success. Data consist of introspective and retrospective think-aloud protocols of 21 intermediate ESL learners who attempted to infer new word meanings from context. Analysis reveals that (a) overall, the rate of success was low even when learners used the strategies and knowledge sources they had at their disposal, (b) different strategies contributed differentially to inferencing success, and (c) success was related more to the quality rather than the quantity of the strategies used. Findings challenge a unidimensional conception of the role of strategies in L2 lexical inferencing and instead support an inferencing model that distinguishes between strategies and the ability to use them appropriately and effectively in conjunction with various sources of knowledge in lexical inferencing. This article discusses the pedagogical as well as theoretical implications of the findings for an integrated model of lexical inferencing.

Schema Theory and Knowledge-Based Processes in Second Language Reading Comprehension: A Need for Alternative Perspectives

Despite major theoretical developments in second language (L2) reading comprehension over the last two decades, many attempts at explaining the role of knowledge in comprehension are still made almost exclusively in the context of schema theory. I first review and critically analyze the major assumptions underlying schema theory. Then, I consider an alternative perspective, a construction-integration model of text comprehension, and discuss how this perspective, when applied to L2 reading comprehension, offers a fundamentally different and more comprehensive account of the role of knowledge and knowledge-based processes that L2 researchers had previously tried to explain within schema-theoretic principles.

6. CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN RESEARCH ON THE TEACHING OF GRAMMAR

With the rise of communicative methodology in the late 1970s, the role of grammar instruction in second language learning was downplayed, and it was even suggested that teaching grammar was not only unhelpful but might actually be detrimental. However, recent research has demonstrated the need for formal instruction for learners to attain high levels of accuracy. This has led to a resurgence of grammar teaching, and its role in second language acquisition has become the focus of much current investigation. In this chapter we briefly review the major developments in the research on the teaching of grammar over the past few decades. This review addresses two main issues: (1) whether grammar teaching makes any difference to language learning; and (2) what kinds of grammar teaching have been suggested to facilitate second language learning. To this end, the chapter examines research on the different ways in which formal instruction can be integrated with communicative activities.

Higher-Level and Lower-Level Text Processing Skills in Advanced ESL Reading Comprehension

This study investigated the role of higher–level syntactic and semantic processes and lower–level word recognition and graphophonic processes in adult English as a second language (ESL) reading comprehension. In particular, the study examined the extent to which these processes can discriminate skilled from less–skilled readers in a sample of fairly advanced ESL readers. Measures of reading comprehension, syntactic, semantic, word recognition, phonological, and orthographic processing skills were used. One–way discriminant function analysis revealed that lower–level component processes, such as word recognition and graphophonic processes, in addition to higher–level syntactic and semantic processes, contributed significantly to the distinction between skilled and less–skilled ESL readers. These findings suggest that efficient lower–level word recognition processes are integral components of second language reading comprehension and that the role of these processes must not be neglected even in highly advanced ESL readers.

Towards Integrating Form‐Focused Instruction and Communicative Interaction in the Second Language Classroom: Some Pedagogical Possibilities

Much has been written, on both theoretical and empirical levels, about the idea of focus on form and the suggestion that some kind of form-focused activity needs to be incorporated into second language (L2) communicative contexts. However, much less work has been published on how this aim can be pedagogically fostered. This article will first elaborate on the need to incorporate form-focused activities within an integrative approach to L2 teaching. Pedagogical possibilities and strategies will then be suggested, and examples provided of tasks that may help to realize this goal in classroom contexts. Relevant empirical evidence on the effectiveness of such tasks will be presented and discussed.

Collaborative and Individual Output Tasks and Their Effects on Learning English Phrasal Verbs.

Current second language (L2) instruction research has encouraged the use of collaborative output tasks in L2 classrooms. This study examined and compared the effectiveness of two types of output tasks (reconstruction cloze tasks and reconstruction editing tasks) for learning English phrasal verbs. Of interest was whether doing the tasks collaboratively led to greater gains of knowledge of the target verbs than doing the tasks individually, and also whether the type of task made a difference. The study was conducted in two intact low-intermediate adult English-as-a-second-language (ESL) classrooms. The effectiveness of the tasks was determined by how successfully learners completed the tasks and also by means of a vocabulary knowledge test administered before and after the treatment. The results showed that completing the tasks collaboratively (in pairs) led to a greater accuracy of task completion than completing them individually. However, collaborative tasks did not lead to significantly greater gains of vocabulary knowledge than individual tasks. The results, however, showed an effect of task type, with the editing tasks being more effective than the cloze tasks in promoting negotiation and learning. The findings contribute to the research that has examined the effectiveness of pedagogical tasks in L2 classrooms.

The Contribution of Phonological and Orthographic Processing Skills to Adult ESL Reading: Evidence from Native Speakers of Farsi.

The present study investigated the role of phonological and orthographic processing skills in adult second language reading. The subjects were 60 ESL graduate students; all were native speakers of Farsi. Three types of ESL reading measures were used as criterion variables: reading comprehension, silent reading rate, and the ability to recognize individual words. Data were analyzed using correlational and hierarchical multiple regression. Efficiency in phonological and orthographic processing contributed significantly to individual differences on the reading measures. In particular, efficiency in orthographic processing contributed to the reading measures independently of syntactic and semantic measures. The study suggests that it is useful to consider individual differences in ESL reading with respect to individual differences in lower level processes – particularly the efficiency with which readers process phonological and orthographic information.

The relationship between SLA research and language pedagogy: Teachers’ perspectives:

There is currently a substantial body of research on second language (L2) learning and this body of knowledge is constantly growing. There are also many attempts in most teacher education programs around the world to inform practicing and prospective L2 teachers about second language acquisition (SLA) research and its findings. However, an important question in this context has been to what extent SLA research has been able to influence L2 teaching. There is extensive discussion and debate among SLA researchers about the applicability of L2 research to language teaching. However, there is little empirical research in this area. This research was conducted to shed some light on this issue by examining how English language teachers perceive the relationship between SLA research and language teaching and to what extent they believe the findings of SLA is useful and relevant for L2 pedagogy. Data were collected from 201 teachers of English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) by means of a written questionnaire. Analyses of data revealed that most teachers believed that knowing about SLA research is useful and that it can improve L2 teaching. However, a high percentage indicated that the knowledge they gain from teaching experience is more relevant to their teaching practices than the knowledge they gain from research. The majority indicated that they have easy access to research materials, but very few stated that they read research articles, with the most common reasons being lack of time, difficulty of research articles, and lack of interest. The article concludes with discussion and suggestions about how to improve the perceived gap between L2 research and pedagogy.

The role and importance of lower-level processes in second language reading

This article examines current research on the role and importance of lower-level processes in second language (L2) reading. The focus is on word recognition and its subcomponent processes, including various phonological and orthographic processes. Issues related to syntactic and semantic processes and their relationship with word recognition are also discussed. When examining the role of these processes, an important focus is also on cross-linguistic variables and the various ways in which they facilitate or impede the development of L2 reading skills. The review concludes with a discussion of the implications of the issues addressed for L2 reading instruction and directions for future research.

Anniversary Article--Interactional Feedback in Second Language Teaching and Learning: A Synthesis and Analysis of Current Research.

The role of interactional feedback has long been of interest to both second language acquisition researchers and teachers and has continued to be the object of intensive empirical and theoretical inquiry. In this article, I provide a synthesis and analysis of recent research and developments in this area and their contributions to second language acquisition (SLA). I begin by discussing the theoretical underpinnings of interactional feedback and then review studies that have investigated the provision and effectiveness of feedback for language learning in various settings. I also examine research in a number of other key areas that have been the focus of current research including feedback timing, feedback training, learner–learner interaction, and computer-assisted feedback. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of the issues examined with regard to classroom instruction.