Hua Yu Sebastian Cherng

Examinations and educational opportunity in China: mobility and bottlenecks for the rural poor

Despite the important role played by examinations in educational stratification and mobility in China, to our knowledge there is no literature in English that investigates the impact of exams on educational attainment with empirical data. We address this gap with an investigation of how examinations shape opportunities for children of the rural poor, a vulnerable group of great contemporary policy significance. After introducing Chinas high school and college entrance examination systems, we present a case study of examinations and educational transitions in rural Gansu Province, one of Chinas poorest provinces. We offer a snapshot of educational progress among rural young adults in 2009, with special attention to social selection in exam taking and outcomes, and to the role of examinations in shaping subsequent educational transitions. As expected, high school and college entrance exam results play an important role in determining transitions to secondary and tertiary education, and in determining the type of education received. Exams reinforce inequalities observed in other stages of educational transition, but generalised disparities in educational opportunity precede exams, shape who takes exams, and emerge net of exam results. The patterns of advantage and disadvantage associated with different dimensions of household and village socioeconomic status do not tell a simple story: different factors matter at different stages of education. At the early stages, residing in villages that have an established tradition of education, along with the infrastructure to support education, is important. Residing in a wealthier household shapes the chance of persisting in the system to the examination stage, and offers second chance possibilities later in the game: wealthier youth are more likely to make it to both university and vocational education. Notably, fathers education matters most consistently, not only for ‘survival’ to exam‐taking and supporting tertiary transitions, but also for performance. Disadvantages throughout the process faced by the children of poorly educated fathers, even after accounting for household economic status, village context and performance, speak to equity issues within the education system that require ameliorative strategies beyond addressing cost barriers.

The Importance of Minority Teachers: Student Perceptions of Minority Versus White Teachers

The demographic divide between teachers and students is of growing public concern. However, few studies have explicitly addressed the common argument that students, and particularly minority students, have more favorable perceptions of minority versus White teachers. Using data from the Measure of Effective Teaching study, we find that students perceive minority teachers more favorably than White teachers. There is mixed evidence that race matching is linked with more favorable student perceptions. These findings underscore the importance of minority teacher recruitment and retention.

Ethnic disparities in educational attainment in China: considering the implications of interethnic families

This paper addresses the question of whether the classification of interethnic children, defined as those with one parent who is ethnic majority Han and one parent who is a member of an officially designated minority group, shapes observed patterns of educational advantage and disadvantage across official ethnic groups in China. Utilizing census data from 2000 and focusing on junior high school attainment as an outcome, we address three questions: among children classified as members of officially recognized minority groups, are interethnic children systematically different in terms of educational outcomes from non-interethnic children?; are interethnic children who are classified as minority systematically different in terms of educational outcomes from interethnic children who are classified as Han?; and, are observed patterns of educational stratification by ethnic group sensitive to the classification of interethnic children? Results show that interethnic children – whether classified as Han or minority – are generally educationally advantaged compared to their non-interethnic co-ethnics, and, in some cases, are faring comparably to or better than Han children. Moreover, the classification of interethnic children does make a difference for observed patterns of stratification. Interethnic children’s access advantage contributes to the observed advantage among historically advantaged groups and mitigates some of the disadvantages observed among historically disadvantaged groups. Better understanding of ethnic stratification in China will require additional information on the boundaries and porousness of ethnic categories. Future survey data collection efforts should consider adding questions about ethnic heritage, identity, and classification changes to the standard question about official ethnic classification.

In Thoughts, Words, and Deeds: Are Social Class Differences in Parental Support Similar across Immigrant and Native Families?

ABSTRACT Much of the literature examining social class differences in parental involvement has drawn on Bourdieu’s theory of cultural reproduction, but the applicability of this model to immigrant families is unclear. Using data from the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002, a nationally representative study of high school students who were sophomores in 2002 (n = 11,430), we examine whether patterns of social class differences, as measured by maternal education, in parental support among immigrant parents are similar to those found among native-born parents. Results from multivariate regression analyses show that social class differences among immigrant parents differ in magnitude and in some cases, direction, compared to those of native-born parents. We argue that these findings suggest a cross-class “immigrant habitus” that shapes parental support both in schools and at home.

Multicultural Matters: An Investigation of Key Assumptions of Multicultural Education Reform in Teacher Education:

Five decades of rhetoric and reform in teacher education underscore the importance of multicultural education in preparing teachers to meet the needs of all students. State and national policy initiatives targeting multicultural education build on two assumptions: first, that preservice teachers lack the multicultural awareness to function as culturally responsive educators, and second, that higher levels of multicultural awareness correspond with increased pedagogical proficiency. Few studies have examined variation in multicultural awareness across preservice candidates, or the link between multicultural awareness and prospective teachers’ measured competencies. Using a novel dataset of 2,500 preservice teachers’ beliefs and student teacher performance assessments, we find that Black and Latino candidates report greater multicultural awareness, while Asian Americans report less, compared with their White counterparts. Prior experience working with nondominant populations is linked with higher levels of awareness, particularly for minority respondents. Propensity score matching analyses reveal that multicultural awareness is tied to candidates’ competence in creating nurturing classroom environments.

Academic social support and student expectations: The case of second-generation asian americans.

Strong academic orientations and high expectations from key actors—including parents, friends, and teachers—are linked with high adolescent expectations, which are in turn associated with better academic outcomes. Expectancy-Value Theory argues that broader social influences play a prominent role, although limited work focuses on this aspect of the framework. Two separate, but related, bodies of work theorize how Asian Americans form their expectations. The “Immigrant Bargain” describes how Asian American parents influence the expectations of youth: immigrant parents, who are particularly optimistic, expect their children to succeed. In turn, youth feel pressure to fulfill their familial obligations. The “Model Minority Stereotype,” which constructs Asian American identity around academic excellence, can also be a source of pressure for these youth. Together, these theories suggest that academic social support may be a source of pressure for Asian American youth. Using data from the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), a nationally representative dataset of high school sophomores, we find that second-generation Asian Americans have the strongest social support from parents, friends, and teachers, as well as the strongest overall support from these 3 key actors. Results from propensity score matching analyses show that having strong academic support is linked with having higher student expectations. However, the positive relationships between strong social support and college-going expectations are weaker for second-generation Asian Americans. We end by discussing how our findings contribute to Expectancy-Value Theory and research on the “Immigrant Bargain” and the “Model Minority Stereotype.”

The Ties That Bind: Teacher Relationships, Academic Expectations, and Racial/Ethnic and Generational Inequality

Teachers not only play a pivotal role in developing students’ knowledge and skills but also can serve as role models, which may be particularly beneficial for youth of color and children of immigrants. However, it is unknown whether relationships vary across student racial/ethnic and generational groups. Moreover, the link between teacher-student relationships and students’ academic expectations remains unclear. Using the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002, a nationally representative sample of high schoolers, I found that not all groups of students enjoy strong teacher-student relationships: English teachers report weaker relationships with Asian American students and mathematics teachers with their Latino students compared with third-generation white students. These relationships are important predictors of student expectations. Results highlight the importance of teacher-student relationships and suggest that certain racial/ethnic and generational groups are missing out on this form of social capital.

Accountability Reform and Responsive Assessment for Immigrant Youth

Immigrant students, one of the fastest-growing populations in US public schools, have been linguistically and culturally disadvantaged by accountability policies that rely only on standardized tests. Recent changes to these policies allow for the use of performance-based assessment tasks (PBATs) as an assessment indicator to supplement standardized tests. In this article, we explore how 1 highly successful high school that works exclusively with recently arrived immigrant teenagers has incorporated PBATs into its curriculum. We find that school leaders, teachers, and students agree that the use of rigorous performance assessments accomplishes language learning, content mastery, and test preparation simultaneously.

Parents Beyond Oceans: A Social Group Work Curriculum for Chinese Immigrant Parents

ABSTRACT Parents Beyond Oceans is a unique curriculum that was first implemented in 2011 as part of The Center for Family Life’s efforts to work with Chinese immigrant parents in Brooklyn, New York. Drawing on best practices in social group work and culturally competent social work, the curriculum creates a space where parents can share and process their immigration stories and traumas. Pre- and posttesting show that after participating in the program, parents felt less isolated, more a part of community that treated them like equals, and more accepting of cultural differences in parenting practices.

The Double Penalty? Ethno-Gender Outcomes in China's Labour Market

Studies looking at gender and ethnic minority outcomes in China’s labour market have generally suggested that women and minorities are separately experiencing a wage disadvantage relative to males and the Han majority respectively. But, what is the experience of this combined cohort, ethnic minority women? Using data from China’s 2005 one percent mini-census, we discern ethno-gender labour market outcomes by factoring education, labour force participation, working hours, age, family structure (e.g. married, number of dependents) and geography (e.g. urban/rural, bordering province). We surprisingly find that ethnic minority women are less disadvantaged in the labour market than Han women. This is largely due to smaller penalties linked to marriage and having children.