Huangxian Ju

Electrochemical sensing of heavy metal ions with inorganic, organic and bio-materials

As heavy metal ions severely harm human health, it is important to develop simple, sensitive and accurate methods for their detection in environment and food. Electrochemical detection featured with short analytical time, low power cost, high sensitivity and easy adaptability for in-situ measurement is one of the most developed methods. This review introduces briefly the recent achievements in electrochemical sensing of heavy metal ions with inorganic, organic and bio-materials modified electrodes. In particular, the unique properties of inorganic nanomaterials, organic small molecules or their polymers, enzymes and nucleic acids for detection of heavy metal ions are highlighted. By employing some representative examples, the design and sensing mechanisms of these electrodes are discussed.

Electrochemical Sensor for Lead Cation Sensitized with a DNA Functionalized Porphyrinic Metal–Organic Framework

An efficient electrochemical sensor was presented for lead cation detection using a DNA functionalized iron-porphyrinic metal-organic framework (GR-5/(Fe-P)n-MOF) as a probe. The newly designed probe showed both the recognition behavior of GR-5 to Pb(2+) with high selectivity and the excellent mimic peroxidase performance of (Fe-P)n-MOF. In the presence of Pb(2+), GR-5 could be specifically cleaved at the ribonucleotide (rA) site, which produced the short (Fe-P)n-MOF-linked oligonucleotide fragment to hybridize with hairpin DNA immobilized on the surface of screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE). Because of the mimic peroxidase property of (Fe-P)n-MOF, enzymatically amplified electrochemical signal was obtained to offer the sensitive detection of Pb(2+) ranging from 0.05 to 200 nM with a detection limit of 0.034 nM. In addition, benefiting from the Pb(2+)-dependent GR-5, the proposed assay could selectively detect Pb(2+) in the presence of other metal ions. The SPCE based electrochemical sensor along with the GR-5/(Fe-P)n-MOF probe exhibited the advantages of low-cost, simple fabrication, high sensitivity and selectivity, providing potential application of on-site and real-time Pb(2+) detection in complex media.

A simple electrochemical biosensor for highly sensitive and specific detection of microRNA based on mismatched catalytic hairpin assembly

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play vital regulatory roles in cancer development and a variety of diseases, which make them become promising biomarkers. Here, a simple electrochemical biosensor was developed for highly sensitive and specific detection of target miRNA using mismatched catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA). The target miRNA triggered the toehold strand displacement assembly of two hairpin substrates, which led to the cyclic reuse of the target miRNA and the CHA products. Compared with the traditional CHA, mismatched CHA could decrease the nonspecific CHA products, which reduced the background signal significantly. Under the optimal experimental conditions and using differential pulse voltammetry, the established biosensor could detect target miRNA down to 0.6 pM (S/N=3) with a linear range from 1 pM to 25 nM, and discriminate target miRNA from mismatched miRNA with a high selectivity. It was also applied to the determination of miRNA spiked into human total RNA samples. Thus, this biosensing strategy might become a potential alternative tool for detection of miRNA in biomedical research and early clinical diagnosis.

Immunoreaction-triggered DNA assembly for one-step sensitive ratiometric electrochemical biosensing of protein biomarker.

A sensitive ratiometric electrochemical readout was designed with an immunoreaction-triggered DNA assembly for one-step, fast and flexible assay of protein biomarker. The sensing interface was prepared by immobilizing a ferrocene (Fc)-labeled hairpin DNA on a gold electrode. In the presence of DNA2-antibody2 (Ab2) and methylene blue (MB)-labeled DNA1-Ab1 probes, the addition of target protein could induce the sandwich immunoreaction among two probes and the protein to trigger the hybridization of DNA1 and DNA2, which subsequently unfolded the hairpin DNA to form a three-arm DNA structure on the sensing interface. The DNA assembly caused the departure of Fc from the electrode and the approach of MB to the electrode, which led to the signal decrease and increase of Fc and MB respectively for ratiometric readout. Using prostate specific antigen (PSA) as a model target, the ratiometric electrochemical assay showed a linear detection range from 0.01 to 200ng/mL with a detection limit of 4.3pg/mL (the mean signal of blank measures+3σ). By changing the affinity probe pairs this method could be easily expanded for other protein analytes, showing promising potential for point-of-care testing and extensive applications in bioanalysis.

Porphyrin-Encapsulated Metal–Organic Frameworks as Mimetic Catalysts for Electrochemical DNA Sensing via Allosteric Switch of Hairpin DNA

A sensitive electrochemical sensor is designed for DNA detection based on mimetic catalysis of metal-organic framework (MOF) and allosteric switch of hairpin DNA. The functional MOFs are synthesized as signal probes by a one-pot encapsulation of iron(III) meso-5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl) porphyrin chloride (FeTCPP) into a prototypal MOF, HKUST-1(Cu), and sequentially conjugated with streptavidin (SA) as a recognition element. The resulting FeTCPP@MOF composites can mimetically catalyze the oxidation of o-phenylenediamine (o-PD) to 2,2-diaminoazobenzene, which is a good electrochemical indicator for signal readout. The presence of target DNA introduces the allosteric switch of hairpin DNA to form SA aptamer, and thus, FeTCPP@MOF-SA probe is brought on the electrode surface via the specific recognition between SA and the corresponding aptamer, resulting in the enhancement of electrochemical signal. The signal-on electrochemical sensor can detect target DNA down to 0.48 fM with the linear range of 10 fM to 10 nM. Moreover, the MOF-based electrochemical sensor exhibits acceptable selectivity against even a single mismatched DNA and good feasibility in complex serum matrixes. This strategy opens up a new direction of porphyrin-functionalized MOF for signal transduction in electrochemical biosensing.

Catalytic Hairpin Assembly-Programmed Porphyrin-DNA Complex as Photoelectrochemical Initiator for DNA Biosensing.

A catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA)-programmed porphyrin-DNA complex was designed to trigger the chemiluminescence as photoelectrochemical initiator for DNA sensing. First, the programmed double strand DNA (dsDNA) was formed using two hairpin DNAs as assembly components via target-assisted CHA reaction, and then immobilized on a capture DNA/CdS quantum dots modified electrode. The porphyrin (FeTMPyP) was conveniently assembled on a dsDNA scaffold via the groove interaction. The FeTMPyP@dsDNA complex possessed high catalytic activity toward luminol oxidation to generate the desirable chemiluminescence with high stability under various temperature and alkaline conditions. By integrating the signal amplification capacity of CHA and in situ FeTMPyP-mediated chemiluminescence as excitation light, an amplified photoelectrochemical sensing strategy is proposed for DNA detection. Under optimized conditions, the biosensor shows a wide linear range from 5 to 10000 fM with a detection limit of 2.2 fM. Moreover, the developed photoelectrochemical device exhibits excellent selectivity, high stability, and acceptable fabrication reproducibility. The CHA-programmed porphyrin-DNA strategy not only extends the applications of photoelectrochemistry, but also presents a novel methodology in bioanalysis.

Reversibly Extracellular pH Controlled Cellular Uptake and Photothermal Therapy by PEGylated Mixed-Charge Gold Nanostars

Shielding nanoparticles from nonspecific interactions with normal cells/tissues before they reach and after they leave tumors is crucial for the selective delivery of NPs into tumor cells. By utilizing the reversible protonation of weak electrolytic groups to pH changes, long-chain amine/carboxyl-terminated polyethylene glycol (PEG) decorated gold nanostars (GNSs) are designed, exhibiting reversible, significant, and sensitive response in cell affinity and therapeutic efficacy to the extracellular pH (pHe) gradient between normal tissues and tumors. This smart nanosystem shows good dispersity and unimpaired photothermal efficacy in complex bioenvironment at pH 6.4 and 7.4 even when their surface charge is neutral. One PEGylated mixed-charge GNSs with certain surface composition, GNS-N/C 4, exhibits high cell affinity and therapeutic efficacy at pH 6.4, and low affinity and almost zero damage to cells at pH 7.4. Remarkably, this significant and sensitive response in cell affinity and therapeutic efficacy is reversible as local pH alternated. In vivo, GNS-N/C 4 shows higher accumulation in tumors and improved photothermal therapeutic efficacy than pH-insensitive GNSs. This newly developed smart nanosystem, whose cell affinity reversibly transforms in response to pHe gradient with unimpaired biostability, provides a novel effective means of tumor-selective therapy.

Porphyrinic metal-organic framework as electrochemical probe for DNA sensing via triple-helix molecular switch.

An electrochemical DNA sensor was developed based on the electrocatalysis of porphyrinic metal-organic framework (MOF) and triple-helix molecular switch for signal transduction. The streptavidin functionalized zirconium-porphyrin MOF (PCN-222@SA) was prepared as signal nanoprobe via covalent method and demonstrated high electrocatalysis for O2 reduction. Due to the large steric effect, the designed nanoprobe was blocked for the interaction with the biotin labeled triple-helix immobilized on the surface of glassy carbon electrode. In the presence of target DNA, the assistant DNA in triple-helix will hybridize with target DNA, resulting in the disassembly of triple-helix molecular. Consequently, the end biotin away from the electrode was activated for easy access to the signal nanoprobe, PCN-222@SA, on the basis of biotin-streptavidin biorecognition. The introduction of signal nanoprobe to a sensor surface led to a significantly amplified electrocatalytic current towards oxygen reduction. Integrating with DNA recycling amplification of Exonuclease III, the sensitivity of the biosensor was improved significantly with detection limit of 0.29 fM. Moreover, the present method has been successfully applied to detect DNA in complex serum matrix. This porphyrinic MOF-based strategy has promising application in the determination of various analytes for signal transduction and has great potential in bioassays.

Target-Driven Triple-Binder Assembly of MNAzyme for Amplified Electrochemical Immunosensing of Protein Biomarker

A simple electrochemical immunosensing method is presented for highly sensitive and selective detection of protein biomarker. This method uses a newly designed assembly of Mg(2+)-dependent MNAzyme via target-driven triple-binder proximity hybridization to catalyze the cleavage of methylene blue (MB)-labeled hairpin, which leads to the departure of MB from the electrode surface and thus an amplified decrease of electrochemical signal for immunoassay of the target protein. The MNAzyme assembly is achieved by the simultaneous recognition of target protein with three DNA-labeled antibodies in the presence of Mg(2+), which greatly improves the detection sensitivity and selectivity. As a proof of concept, this strategy can detect carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) ranging from 0.002 to 500 ng mL(-1) with a detection limit of 1.5 pg mL(-1). The whole assay including the target-driven MNAzyme formation and subsequent cleavage of hairpin can be completed with one step in 40 min. The immunosensor, prepared with a hairpin DNA, possesses good extensibility for large protein biomarkers as CEA by using corresponding antibodies, though the protein target size dependence was not investigated in this work. The proposed immunoassay method shows the advantages of easy operation, high sensitivity, wide concentration range, good selectivity, and excellent versatility, displaying potential application for protein analysis.

Multifunctional Poly(l-lactide)–Polyethylene Glycol-Grafted Graphene Quantum Dots for Intracellular MicroRNA Imaging and Combined Specific-Gene-Targeting Agents Delivery for Improved Therapeutics

Photoluminescent (PL) graphene quantum dots (GQDs) with large surface area and superior mechanical flexibility exhibit fascinating optical and electronic properties and possess great promising applications in biomedical engineering. Here, a multifunctional nanocomposite of poly(l-lactide) (PLA) and polyethylene glycol (PEG)-grafted GQDs (f-GQDs) was proposed for simultaneous intracellular microRNAs (miRNAs) imaging analysis and combined gene delivery for enhanced therapeutic efficiency. The functionalization of GQDs with PEG and PLA imparts the nanocomposite with super physiological stability and stable photoluminescence over a broad pH range, which is vital for cell imaging. Cell experiments demonstrate the f-GQDs excellent biocompatibility, lower cytotoxicity, and protective properties. Using the HeLa cell as a model, we found the f-GQDs effectively delivered a miRNA probe for intracellular miRNA imaging analysis and regulation. Notably, the large surface of GQDs was capable of simultaneous adsorption of agents targeting miRNA-21 and survivin, respectively. The combined conjugation of miRNA-21-targeting and survivin-targeting agents induced better inhibition of cancer cell growth and more apoptosis of cancer cells, compared with conjugation of agents targeting miRNA-21 or survivin alone. These findings highlight the promise of the highly versatile multifunctional nanocomposite in biomedical application of intracellular molecules analysis and clinical gene therapeutics.