Ian Baker

SAPHIRA detector for infrared wavefront sensing

The only way to overcome the CMOS noise barrier of near infrared sensors used for wavefront sensing and fringe tracking is the amplification of the photoelectron signal inside the infrared pixel by means of the avalanche gain. In 2007 ESO started a program at Selex to develop near infrared electron avalanche photodiode arrays (eAPD) for wavefront sensing and fringe tracking. In a first step the cutoff wavelength was reduced from 4.5 micron to 2.5 micron in order to verify that the dark current scales with the bandgap and can be reduced to less than one electron/ms, the value required for wavefront sensing. The growth technology was liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) with annular diodes based on the loophole interconnect technology. The arrays required deep cooling to 40K to achieve acceptable cosmetic performance at high APD gain. The second step was to develop a multiplexer tailored to the specific application of the GRAVITY instrument wavefront sensors and the fringe tracker. The pixel format is 320x256 pixels. The array has 32 parallel video outputs which are arranged in such a way that the full multiplex advantage is available also for small subwindows. Nondestructive readout schemes with subpixel sampling are possible. This reduces the readout noise at high APD gain well below the subelectron level at frame rates of 1 KHz. The third step was the change of the growth technology from liquid phase epitaxy to metal organic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE). This growth technology allows the band structure and doping to be controlled on a 0.1μm scale and provides more flexibility for the design of diode structures. The bandgap can be varied for different layers of Hg(1-x)CdxTe. It is possible to make heterojunctions and apply solid state engineering techniques. The change to MOVPE resulted in a dramatic improvement in the cosmetic quality with 99.97 % operable pixels at an operating temperature of 85K. Currently this sensor is deployed in the 4 wavefront sensors and in the fringe tracker of the VLT instrument GRAVITY. Initial results will be presented. An outlook will be given on the potential of APD technology to be employed in large format near infrared science detectors. Several of the results presented here have also been shown to a different audience at the Scientific Detector Workshop in October 2013 in Florence but this paper has been updated with new results [1].

Evaluation and optimization of NIR HgCdTe avalanche photodiode arrays for adaptive optics and interferometry

The performance of the current high speed near infrared HgCdTe sensors operating in fringe trackers, wavefront sensors and tip-tilt sensors is severely limited by the noise of the silicon readout interface circuit (ROIC), even if state-of-the- art CMOS designs are used. A major improvement can only be achieved by the amplification of the photoelectron signal directly at the point of absorption by means of avalanche gain inside the infrared pixel. Unlike silicon, HgCdTe offers noiseless avalanche gain. This has been verified with the LPE grown 320x256 pixel λc=2.5 μm HgCdTe eAPD arrays from SELEX both on a prototype ROIC called SWALLOW and on a newly developed ROIC, specifically designed for AO applications, called SAPHIRA. The novel features of the new SAPHIRA ROIC, which has 32 parallel video channels operating at 5 MHz, will be described, together with the new high speed NGC data acquisition system. Performance results will be discussed for both ROICs. The LPE material on the SWALLOW prototype was excellent and allowed operation at an APD gain as high as 33. Unfortunately, the LPE material of the first devices on the SAPHIRA ROIC suffers from problems which are now understood. However, due to the excellent performance of the SAPHIRA ROIC even with the limitations of present HgCdTe material, it is possible with simple double correlated sampling to detect test patterns with signal levels of 1 electron. An outlook will be given on further developments of heterojunctions grown by MOVPE, which eventually may replace eAPD arrays grown by LPE.

CdHgTe-CMOS hybrid focal plane arrays: a flexible solution for advanced infrared systems

This paper describes a generic focal plane technology which has been developed to serve a range of second generation infrared system applications in the UK and Europe. These applications call for both two-dimensional and long linear arrays, and spectral sensitivities from 2.5 to 12.5 micrometers . The infrared sensor technology is based on CdHgTe material grown by the tellurium rich, liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) process and lateral collection photodiode arrays. The CdHgTe arrays are mounted on custom designed CMOS integrated circuits which provide the multiplexing and signal processing functions required by the system. The technical directions chosen for the LPE growth process and the hybrid fabrication process to produce the highest performance after multiplexing are described, along with a discussion of some of the performance limits for this technology. The producibility, environmental stability and typical radiometric performance are presented with respect to one focal plane type, a 1024 element long linear array. Recently, the availability of denser CMOS processes has enabled some special techniques to be developed for advanced infrared search- and-track and high performance imaging applications. Such applications require the highest possible performance, and call for special functions such as: signal-to-noise enhancement by time-delay and integration (TDI), defective element deselection (DED) for redundancy, large numbers of elements, and low image crosstalk. The technical routes chosen for long wavelength, long linear arrays are outlined, and prototype devices with up to 12 elements in TDI, user-definable DED, and a pixel size of 30 micrometers square are described.

Advanced infrared detectors for multimode active and passive imaging applications

Active systems, using a near-infrared pulse laser and a fast, gated detector, are now adopted for most long range imaging applications. This concept is often called laser-gated imaging (LGI) or burst-illumination LIDAR (BIL). The SELEX solid state detector is based on an array of HgCdTe avalanche photodiodes, and a custom-designed CMOS multiplexer to perform the fast gating and photon signal capture. This paper describes two recent developments. The first is aimed at reducing the size, weight, power and cost of steerable platforms which often have to contain a large number of electrooptic tools such as lasers, range finders, BIL, thermal imaging and visible cameras. A dual-mode infrared detector has been developed with the aim of shrinking the system to one camera. The detector can be switched to operate as a passive thermal imager, a laser-gated imager or a solar flux imager. The detector produces a sensitivity in the MW thermal band of 16-18mK and a sensitivity in the BIL mode as low as 10 photons rms, in other words close to the performance of dedicated imagers. A second development was to extend the current BIL capability to 3D. In complex scenes, with camouflage and concealment, the ability to generate 3D images provides a signal-to-clutter advantage. Also in airborne applications, especially, it is useful to have 3D information to provide agile, feedback control of the range gating in a dynamic environment. This report describes the development of the 3D detector and camera, and the results of field trials using a prototype system.

Development of high-speed, low-noise NIR HgCdTe avalanche photodiode arrays for adaptive optics and interferometry

The most promising way to overcome the CMOS noise barrier of infrared AO sensors is the amplification of the photoelectron signal directly at the point of absorption inside the infrared pixel by means of the avalanche gain. HgCdTe eAPD arrays with cut off wavelengths of λc ~2.64 μm produced by SELEX-Galileo have been evaluated at ESO. The arrays were hybridized to an existing non-optimized ROIC developed for laser gated imaging which has a format of 320×256 pixels and four parallel video outputs. The avalanche gain makes it possible to reduce the read noise to < 7 e rms. The dark current requirements of IR wavefront sensing are also met.

Advanced multifunctional detectors for laser-gated imaging applications

The rapid pace of development in the field of long-range imaging is illustrated by two new detector technologies for passive and active imaging. Active systems, using a near-infrared pulse laser and a fast, gated detector, are now adopted for most long range imaging applications. This concept is often called burst-illumination LIDAR or BIL. The SELEX solid state detector is based on two major components: an array of HgCdTe avalanche photodiodes, and a custom-designed CMOS multiplexer to perform the fast gating and photon signal capture. These hybrid arrays produce sensitivities as low as 10 photons rms, due largely to very high, almost noise-free avalanche gain in the HgCdTe diodes. The sensitivity, dynamic range and image quality is now such that the camera performance is usually limited by coherence and scintillation effects in the scene. With this strong sensor capability, it has been possible to launch the next generation of multiplexers to satisfy systems of the future. For instance, most laser-gated imaging systems use a suite of passive infrared and visible cameras to complement the BIL channel. It is highly advantageous to combine these functions into one electro-optic system, leading to a simpler, smaller, lower power and lower cost system. The key technical steps are to find solutions for the difficult multifunctional detector and the dual-wavelength optic. A detector has been developed to image passively in the medium and short wavebands, and actively in BIL mode. The performance of the detector and optic is described. Another major systems enhancement is to be able to generate 3D images, particularly in complex scenes, to further improve background clutter rejection and provide agile, feedback control of the range gating in a dynamic environment. Here the detector senses the range, as well as the laser pulse intensity, on a pixel-by-pixel basis, providing depth context for each laser pulse. A prototype detector has been successfully demonstrated and shown to provide good quality 2D and 3D data for each laser pulse.

Next-generation performance of SAPHIRA HgCdTe APDs

We present the measured characteristics of the most recent iteration of SAPHIRA HgCdTe APD arrays, and with suppressed glow show them to be capable of a baseline dark current of 0:03e-/s. Under high bias voltages the device also reaches avalanche gains greater than 500. The application of a high temperature anneal during production shows great improvements to cosmetic performance and moves the SAPHIRA much closer to being science grade arrays. We also discuss investigations into photon counting and ongoing telescope deployments of the SAPHIRA with UH-IfA.

Ultra-low power HOT MCT grown by MOVPE for handheld applications

In 2012 Selex ES demonstrated High Operating Temperature (HOT) MCT detectors with 5μm cut-off wavelength and f/4 aperture operating at temperatures above 200K. These detectors are grown by Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) which enables fine control over the photo-diode structure. Since 2012 Selex has created two further generations of MOVPE HOT MCT, progressively improving operability and yield. This paper presents performance data for Selex’s third generation of HOT MCT technology and describes the improvements to the diode design and materials processing that have enabled these advances. A parallel program has developed miniature Dewars with lower heatload and reduced manufacturing costs. When integrated with the latest generation of miniature linear cryo-engines the required cooler power is reduced to the region of 1W at temperatures of 200K. This paper will present example imagery from a detector operating with <1 Watt cooler input power. The combination of third generation HOT MCT, high efficiency Dewars and miniature linear coolers will allow a drastic reduction in SWAP-C for long range hand-held thermal imagers.

Developments in MOVPE HgCdTe arrays for passive and active infrared imaging

SELEX Galileo Infrared Ltd has developed a range of 3rd Generation infrared detectors based on HgCdTe grown by Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) on low cost GaAs substrates. There have been four key development aims: reducing the cost especially for large arrays, extending the wavelength range, improving the operating temperature for lower power, size and weight cameras and increasing the functionality. Despite a 14% lattice mismatch between GaAs and HgCdTe MOVPE arrays show few symptoms of misfit dislocations even in longwave detectors. The key factors in the growth and device technology are described in this paper to explain at a scientific level the radiometric quality of MOVPE arrays. A feature of the past few years has been the increasingly sophisticated products that are emerging thanks to custom designed silicon readout devices. Three devices are described as examples: a multifunctional device that can operate as an active or passive imager with built-in range finder, a 3-side buttable megapixel array and an ultra-low noise device designed for scientific applications.

Developments in HgCdTe avalanche photodiode technology and applications

SELEX Galileo has developed avalanche photodiode technology in HgCdTe to serve a whole range of applications in defence, security, commercial and space research. Burst-illumination LIDAR (BIL), using a near-infrared pulse laser and a fast, gated detector, is now adopted for most long range imaging applications. New results from range trials using prototype systems based on multifunctional and 3D detectors are reported. In the astronomy field, APD arrays at 2.5 μm cutoff can provide near-single photon sensitivity for future wavefront sensors and interferometric applications. Under a contract from European Southern Observatories arrays have been successfully demonstrated with gains up to 20× and negligible dark current at 77K. Under a European Space Agency contract, a large area, single element detector has been designed for the 2.015μm CO2 absorption line. The sensor is specifically designed to be operated at 200K so that thermoelectric cooling is viable. The element is made up of many sub-pixel diodes each deselectable to ensure high breakdown in the macro-pixel. The latest results of the detector and its associated transimpedance amplifier (TIA) are presented.