Ian D. Boardley

The influence of social variables and moral disengagement on prosocial and antisocial behaviours in field hockey and netball

Abstract In this study, we examined: (a) the effects of perceived motivational climate and coaching character-building competency on prosocial and antisocial behaviours towards team-mates and opponents in field hockey and netball; (b) whether the effects of perceived character-building competency on sport behaviours are mediated by moral disengagement; and (c) whether these relationships are invariant across sport. Field hockey (n = 200) and netball (n = 179) players completed questionnaires assessing the aforementioned variables. Structural equation modelling indicated that mastery climate had positive effects on prosocial and negative effects on antisocial behaviour towards team-mates, while performance climate had a positive effect on antisocial behaviour towards team-mates. Perceived character-building competency had a positive effect on prosocial behaviour towards opponents and negative effects on the two antisocial behaviours; all of these effects were mediated by moral disengagement. No effect was found for prosocial behaviour towards team-mates. The model was largely invariant across sport. The findings aid our understanding of social influences on prosocial and antisocial behaviours in sport.

The moral disengagement in sport scale--short.

Abstract A scale has recently been developed to measure moral disengagement in sport (Boardley & Kavussanu, 2007). It consists of 32 items that measure the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement proposed by Bandura (1991). In the present study, we aimed to: (a) examine whether a subset of these items could form a short version of the scale; (b) provide evidence for the construct validity of the short version; and (c) test its measurement invariance across sex and sport type. A total of 992 football, rugby, hockey, basketball, and netball players from three different samples completed the long version of the scale. Data analyses indicated that the short version of the scale consisted of eight items and had high internal consistency. Construct validity of the scale was evidenced via correlations with sport moral disengagement and prosocial and antisocial behaviour. Multisample confirmatory factor analyses established measurement invariance across sex and partial measurement invariance across four team sports. In conclusion, the short version of the scale is a reliable and valid measure of moral disengagement in sport.

Effects of competitive pressure on expert performance: Underlying psychological, physiological, and kinematic mechanisms

Although it is well established that performance is influenced by competitive pressure, our understanding of the mechanisms which underlie the pressure-performance relationship is limited. The current experiment examined mediators of the relationship between competitive pressure and motor skill performance of experts. Psychological, physiological, and kinematic responses to three levels of competitive pressure were measured in 50 expert golfers, during a golf putting task. Elevated competitive pressure increased putting accuracy, anxiety, effort, and heart rate, but decreased grip force. Quadratic effects of pressure were noted for self-reported conscious processing and impact velocity. Mediation analyses revealed that effort and heart rate partially mediated improved performance. The findings indicate that competitive pressure elicits effects on expert performance through both psychological and physiological pathways.

The Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour in Sport Scale: Further evidence for construct validity and reliability

Abstract The purpose of this research was to provide further evidence for the construct validity (i.e., convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity) of the Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour in Sport Scale (PABSS), an instrument that has four subscales measuring prosocial and antisocial behaviour toward teammates and opponents. We also investigated test-retest reliability and stability of the PABSS. We conducted three studies using athletes from a variety of team sports. In Study 1, participants (N = 129) completed the PABSS and measures of physical and verbal aggression, hostility, anger, moral identity, and empathy; a sub-sample (n = 111) also completed the PABSS one week later. In Study 2, in addition to the PABSS, participants (N = 89) completed measures of competitive aggressiveness and anger, moral attitudes, moral disengagement, goal orientation, and anxiety. In Study 3, participants (N = 307) completed the PABSS and a measure of social goals. Across the three studies, the four subscales evidenced the hypothesised relationships with a number of variables. Correlations were large between the two antisocial behaviours and small between the two prosocial behaviours. Overall, the findings supported the convergent, concurrent, and discriminant validity of the scale, provided evidence for its test-retest reliability and stability, and suggest that the instrument is a valid and reliable measure of prosocial and antisocial behaviour in sport.

Moral disengagement in sport

Historically, theories of morality have focused predominantly on moral cognition at the expense of moral action. One theory that considers moral action as well as moral cognition is Banduras (1991) Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Thought and Action. One aspect of this theory that has recently proved particularly popular with researchers investigating sport morality is that of moral disengagement. Moral disengagement is a collective term for eight psychosocial mechanisms that selectively inhibit moral standards from preventing reprehensible conduct by disengaging self-reproof when one engages in conduct that contravenes ones moral standards. In this review, research examining moral disengagement in the sport context is discussed. Research in this area can be grouped into two broad categories: (a) moral disengagement and behaviours that occur during sport participation; and (b) moral disengagement and doping in sport. The present review considers work addressing both categories. Within each category, the main findings of pertinent studies are discussed, and strengths and weaknesses of these studies are identified. The review concludes with directions for future research.

Can viewing London 2012 influence sport participation? – a viewpoint based on relevant theory

Sport England has been given the responsibility of delivering a mass participation legacy for sport from the London 2012 games. Delivering such a legacy will require a change in motivation for sport participation in the general public; one way this could be influenced is through a demonstration effect stimulated by media coverage of the 2012 games. This article has two purposes: first, to introduce to sport-policy scholars aspects of theories relevant to sport participation; second, to use this material to discuss the potential impact of viewing the 2012 games on viewers’ sport motivation, and therefore stimulate debate around this topic. The outcome of this theoretical investigation suggests there is some potential for at least a short-term positive effect of viewing the 2012 games on sport motivation.

Moral disengagement and associated processes in performance-enhancing drug use: a national qualitative investigation

Abstract This study investigated psychosocial processes associated with avoidance of health- and morality-based deterrents to performance-enhancing drug (PED) use. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 64 English male bodybuilders with experience of doping. Resultant data were content analysed deductively using definitions for the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement (MD; Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development: Theory research and applications (pp. 71–129). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.), and three further themes from Boardley and Grix (2013. Doping in bodybuilders: A qualitative investigation of facilitative psychosocial processes. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise, and Health. Advance online publication, doi 10.1080/2159676X.2013.766809). These analyses evidenced six MD mechanisms, and all three of the themes from Boardley and Grix (2013. Doping in bodybuilders: A qualitative investigation of facilitative psychosocial processes. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise, and Health. Advance online publication). Subsequent frequency analyses revealed six of the eight MD mechanisms, and two of the three additional themes, were common across the sample. Overall, the findings suggest MD may help athletes circumvent health- and morality-based deterrents to doping, describe a process linking supplement and PED use and detail how some athletes may actively avoid social censure for doping by only discussing PED use with other PED users from within their training environment.

Narcissism and coach interpersonal style: A self-determination theory perspective

Athletes’ sport experiences are often influenced by the interpersonal styles of communication used by their coaches. Research on personality antecedents of such styles is scarce. We examined the link between a well‐researched personality trait, namely narcissism, and two types of coaching interpersonal style, namely autonomy‐supportive and controlling styles. We also tested the mediating roles of dominance and empathic concern in explaining the relations between narcissism and the two coaching interpersonal styles. United Kingdom‐based coaches (N = 211) from various sports completed a multi‐section questionnaire assessing the study variables. Regression analyses revealed a positive direct relation between narcissism and controlling coach behaviors. Furthermore, empathy (but not dominance) mediated the positive and negative indirect effects of narcissism on controlling and autonomy‐supported interpersonal styles, respectively. We discuss these findings in terms of their implications for coaching and the quality of athletes’ sport experiences.

Doping in bodybuilders: a qualitative investigation of facilitative psychosocial processes

The current study was designed to investigate the psychosocial processes that support PED use in bodybuilders utilising Bandura’s (1991) social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. Participants were nine bodybuilders who had previously used or were currently using illicit performance-enhancing substances. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted to investigate the psychological and social processes that facilitated their introduction to, and continuation of, doping. Study data were content-analysed deductively using definitions for the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement (Bandura 1991). However, evidence for only six mechanisms was present and a further three emergent themes were inductively coded. The six mechanisms evidenced were moral justification, euphemistic labelling, advantageous comparison, displacement of responsibility, diffusion of responsibility and distortion of consequences. The three emergent themes related to the routinisation of doping, discussing doping with family and friends, and progression from supplement use to doping. All nine themes were discussed with reference to Bandura’s (1991) theory as well as the extant qualitative literature on doping in sport.

Doping in team and individual sports: a qualitative investigation of moral disengagement and associated processes.

The current study qualitatively investigated psychosocial processes that support performance enhancing drug use in athletes from a range of sports, using Bandura’s social cognitive theory of moral thought and action as the guiding theoretical framework. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve male athletes from a variety of sports who had used illicit performance enhancing substances within the previous two years. Interviews centred on the psychological and social processes that facilitated the athletes’ introduction to, and continuation of, doping. Study data were content analysed deductively using definitions for the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement (MD), as well as three further themes relevant to Bandura’s theory. Data analysis provided evidence for seven mechanisms of MD (i.e. moral justification, euphemistic labelling, advantageous comparison, displacement of responsibility, diffusion of responsibility, distortion of consequences, and attribution of blame) and all three of the additional themes (i.e. routinisation, family and friends, and sliding scale). The mechanisms and themes varied in their frequency of use, and were discussed with reference to Bandura’s theory, as well as other relevant literature on doping in sport.