Ian Heazlewood

A Random Control Trial of Contrast Baths and Ice Baths for Recovery during Competition in U/20 Rugby Union

Higgins, TR, Heazlewood, IT, and Climstein, M. A random control trial of contrast baths and ice baths for recovery during competition in U/20 rugby union. J Strength Cond Res 25(4): 1046-1051, 2011-Players in team sports must recover in a relatively short period of time to perform at optimal levels. To enhance recovery, cryotherapy is widely used. To date, there are limited scientific data to support the use of cryotherapy for recovery. Players (n = 26) from a premier rugby club volunteered to participate in a random control trial (RCT) using contrast baths, ice baths, and no recovery. Statistical analysis, between group and within group, with repeated measures was conducted along with determination of effect sizes in 2 field tests. Pre and postfield tests including a 300-m test and a phosphate decrement test and subjective reports were conducted during the RCT. No significant difference was identified between base tests and retests in the phosphate decrement test or the 300-m tests. Effect size calculations identified a medium to large effect (d = 0.72) for 300-m tests for contrast baths against control. Trivial effects were identified for ice baths (d = 0.17) in the 300-m test against control. Effect size calculations in the phosphate decrement test showed a trivial effect (d = 0.18) contrast baths and a negative effect (d = −0.62) for ice baths. Treatment-treatment analysis identified a large effect for contrast baths (d = 0.99) in the phosphate decrement test and a medium effect for contrast baths (d = 0.53) in the 300-m test. Effect scores across contrast baths, ice baths, and passive recovery along with subjective reports indicate a trend toward contrast baths benefiting recovery in rugby. The continued use of 5-minute ice baths for recovery should be reconsidered based on this research because trends suggest a detrimental effect.

Body Mass Index of North American Participants at the World Masters Games

WMG (World Masters Games) athletes have either pursued a physically active lifestyle for an extended period of time or have initiated exercise/sport in later life. This unique cohort of middle-aged to older-aged adults remains relatively uninvestigated with regards to various measures of health. With a need for multifaceted solutions to the obesity epidemic, investigating special populations such as those competing in sport at older ages may further the understanding of the nexus between aging, physical activity and obesity. This study aims to investigate the BMI (body mass index) of North American WMG competitors with respect to national health guidelines and demographics. An online survey was utilized to collect demographic information from athletes competing at the Sydney WMG. BMI was derived using the participant’s height and body mass. A total of 928 (46.7% male, 53.3% female) participants from Canada and the United States (age: 52.6 ± 9.8 years) completed the survey. The top 5 sports in which participants competed were football (25.6%), track/field (15.4%), swimming (8.4%), volleyball (8.2%), and softball (7.8%). Female and male BMI (kg/m2) across all sports were: > 30 (obese: 13.9%), 25-29.9 (overweight: 34.1%), 18.5-24.9 (normal: 50.3%), and

Participant Motivation Predicting Training Sessions and Training Type in Male and Female Athletes Competing at 2010 Pan Pacific Masters Games

Participant motivation evaluates those factors that enhance or inhibit motivation to participate and is represented by factors as health orientation, weight concern/weight loss, and personal goal achievement. The research aim was to evaluate the relationship between participant motivation predicting the quantity of training and training types completed by male and female athletes. The total weekly session in males were predicted by goal achievement and affiliation, whereas in females the predictor set was goal achievement, affiliation, health orientation, and psychological coping.

Differences in Participant Motivation Based on Category of Body Mass Index and Gender

Motivation is defined as “the directions and intensity of one’s effort” and is a significant factor in the selection of exercise and sport. Participant motivation evaluates those factors that enhance or inhibit motivation to participate and is represented by factors as health orientation, weight concern/weight loss and personal goal achievement. The research aim was to evaluate the differences in nine participant motivation factors based on health risk categories of body mass index (BMI) using four BMI categories of underweight, normal, overweight and obese and related to athlete gender. The nine participant motivation factors utilized in the study were health orientation, weight concern, personal goal achievement, competition, recognition, affiliation, psychological coping, life meaning and self-esteem. Male and female athletes competing at the 2009 World Masters Games, Sydney, Australia volunteered for the research (male; n = 3687; mean age = 53.72; SD = 10.05 and female; n = 3488; mean age = 49.39; SD = 9.15). Athletes completed an online survey using the Limesurveytm interactive survey system where they responded to a 56 item sport psychological instrument, the Motivations of Marathoners Scale. Results for male athletes significant differences (p < .001) were identified for BMI category with health orientation, weight concern, personal goal achievement, competition, affiliation, life meaning and self-esteem, although eta2 values were small (η 2 values .002–.020). For female athletes significant differences (p < .001) were identified for BMI category with health orientation, weight concern, personal goal achievement, competition, affiliation and self-esteem, although eta2 values were small (η 2 values .001–.017). No significant differences occurred for recognition, life meaning or psychological coping.

Re-evaluation of the Factor Structure of Motivations of Marathoners Scales (MOMS)

The Motivations of Marathoners Scales (MOMS) was developed by Masters et al. (1993) to assess participant motivation in marathon runners. It contained 56 stem generic items or questions using a seven-point Likert response scale, which represented nine first-order factors or motives to participate in marathons using male and female pooled data. The nine first-order factors represented four second-order factors as follows: general health orientation and weight concern (second-order factor physical health motives); affiliation and recognition (second-order factor social motives); competition and personal goal achievement (second-order factor achievement motives); and psychological coping, self-esteem and life meaning (second-order factor psychological motives). The psychometric instrument displayed internal consistency, test-retest reliability and factorial validity of scales. The instrument has been applied at international multisport events to evaluate differences in participant motivation in different genders, ages and different sports. The research aim was to re-evaluate the first- and second-order factor structure of the MOMS instrument with a different sport cohort of male and female athletes competing at the 2009 World Masters Games (WMG). The study was approved by a university human research ethics committee. Male and female athletes competing at the 2009 World Masters Games volunteered to participate in the research project (male n = 2522; female n = 2428). Athletes completed an online survey using the Limesurvey™ interactive survey system. Factor analysis was completed via SPSS version 23 using principal component analysis, orthogonal and oblimin rotations. The results using non-constrained first-order factor analysis produced eight factors with the majority of items loading significantly on factor 1. The constrained (n = 9) first-order factor analysis produced a similar result with most items loading on factor 1. Varimax rotations resulted in loadings on other factors but not consistent with the original instrument. Second-order factor analysis following a similar approach produced only one significant factor instead of the expected four using the non-constrained approach. When the solution was constrained to four factors, once again, the majority of nine first-order factors loaded on factor 1. In conclusion, the factor structure identified in the original MOMS instrument was not reproduced with the WMG male and female cohort. Initial solutions for first-order factors (explained variance 38%) and second-order factors (explained variance 57.8%) the majority of items loaded on a significant factor 1, which explained most of the variance in the correlation matrix. Constraining models to the original nine first-order factors and four second-order factors slightly improved the solution when mapped with the original instrument factor structure. However, based on these results with the WMG cohort suggests one significant underpinning factor that of participant motivation for competition at this level.

Possible Hormone Predictors Of Physical Performance In Adolescent Team Sport Athletes

Abstract Martin, AC, Heazlewood, IT, Kitic, CM, Lys, I, and Johnson, L. Possible hormone predictors of physical performance in adolescent team sport athletes. J Strength Cond Res 33(2): 417–425, 2019—The research aim of this study was to determine possible hormone predictors of physical performance in adolescent team sport athletes. Saliva samples were collected immediately before performance testing sessions from 114 state squad athletes (77 males, 37 females) participating in either Australian football, basketball, hockey, or netball. Participants completed tests of aerobic and anaerobic capacity, agility, power, and speed. Samples were collected over 22 months at quarterly, six-monthly, and/or yearly intervals depending on the testing schedule of the athlete. Saliva was analyzed for testosterone (T), cortisol (C), estradiol (E), and progesterone (P) levels. A strong negative correlation existed between multistage fitness test performance and T:E ratio (r = −0.76, p = 0.01) in females not taking oral contraceptives, and a strong positive correlation existed between repeat agility total time and estradiol levels (r = −0.71, p = 0.001) in females taking oral contraceptives. In males, strong negative correlations were evident for individual changes in planned agility time and estradiol levels (r = 0.87, p = 0.02), and countermovement jump (CMJ) height and T:C (r = −0.88, p = 0.01). In females taking oral contraceptives, a strong positive correlation was noted between individual change in yo-yo intermittent recovery test performance and T:E (r = 0.74, p = 0.01) and a strong negative correlation was noted between 20-m speed and T:P (r = 0.73, p = 0.01). In females not taking oral contraceptives, a strong negative correlation was found between individual change in CMJ height and T:P (r = −0.72, p = 0.02). The findings show that in adolescent team sport athletes, the P:E, T:E, and the T:P ratios are important predictors of performance in tests of physical capacity. The findings also indicate that estradiol and progesterone have a predictive function in the physical performance of adolescent male team sport athletes.

Convergence and Divergence of Performances Across the Athletic Events for Men and Women: A Cross-Sectional Study 1960 – 2012

There is a perception that performances in athletic events, such as the sprints, throws distance and hurdles events are converging for the top athletes in each event where access to quality training methods and performances at international competitions are readily available for international ranked athletes. Some researchers cite biological reasons that may explain the suggested convergent tends in athletics. The research hypothesis and aim was to evaluate if performance convergence was occurring using the method of regression analysis of the mean of standard deviations, an index of performance dispersion or divergence, for the top 20 male and female athletes across the majority of athletic events from years 1960 to 2012. The results indicated that most male events have reached stasis, neither converging nor diverging whereas female events are currently undergoing performance convergence. Factors such as access to high performance coaches, sports scientist, relevant sports nutritionists and quality medical support are producing the level playing field that is now so level that minimal performance diversity exists between the top 20 male athletes across many events. The reverse situation applies to female athletes who are still displaying performance convergence and who are progressing towards a level playing field.

An exploratory analysis of the interrelationship of the seven events in the women's heptathlon with structural equation derived path models

The interrelationship between multiple event sports, such as the womens heptathlon has important implications for both competition and training to optimize training and competition transfer between events. The more complex relationships between the individual seven events in the heptathlon can be addressed through multivariate statistical analysis, defined as structural equation modeling and path analysis. Conceptual models have been presented which explain the underpinning motor fitness factors thought to enhance performance for each event in the heptathlon. Path analysis was applied to assess the conceptual interrelatedness of the events based on a sample of 171 top ranked IAAF women heptathletes for the 2010 IAAF season. The results indicated minimal direct and indirect effects existed between the seven heptathlon events and the degree of competition and training transfer between the events implies that events should be trained in isolation.

The Factor Structure of General Motor Fitness and Karate Specific Biomechanical Tests: Application of Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Multivariate approaches to predicting and understanding performance in sport are frequently recommended, however rarely implemented, to identify more comprehensively, those factor that are associated with high performance athletes and how such factors interact. The aim of this research was to understand the relationship of motor fitness and karate specific biomechanical tests utilised in karate as a model for talent identification based on confirmatory factor analysis. Twenty four karate athletes volunteered, 12 were classified as high performance athletes with black belt or higher and 12 were classified as non-high performance athletes, below green belt and these ability levels served as a classification variable. General motor fitness tests as Margaria power test, standing long jump, isometric grip strength, sit-reach flexibility, arm crank, peak aerobic power and anaerobic Wingate power test for peak power, time to peak power, mean power and power/weight were measured to reflect tests of power, force, ROM and speed. Karate specific motor fitness tests, as designed by a panel of experts (Delphi method), were tests of karate agility, power punch, speed punch, speed reaction time, balance and lower limb bilateral-abductor flexibility (angular displacement). The confirmatory factor analysis derived a four factor solution, which explained 72.1% of common variance. Tests loaded with factor 1 were predominantly tests of upper and lower body power production and were Margaria power test, arm crank, Wingate power test for peak power, time to peak power, mean power, power punch and speed punch (absolute loadings .536-.863). Tests that loaded with factor 2 (absolute loadings .570-.892) were sit-reach flexibility, bilateral-abductor flexibility, arm crank and karate specific balance. Factor 3 (absolute loadings .519-.924) loaded with standing long jump, peak aerobic power, Wingate peak power and Wingate power/weight. Factor 4 (absolute loadings .509-.882) was associated with Margaria power test, isometric grip strength with high loadings for karate agility and speed reaction time a punching ability and factor complexity was displayed.