Ian M. Brooks

Finding Boundary Layer Top: Application of a Wavelet Covariance Transform to Lidar Backscatter Profiles

Several recent studies have utilized a Haar wavelet covariance transform to provide automated detection of the boundary layer top from lidar backscatter profiles by locating the maximum in the covariance profiles. This approach is effective where the vertical gradient in the backscatter is small within and above the boundary layer, and where the inversion is sharp and well defined. These near-ideal conditions are often not met, particularly under stable stratification where the inversion may be deep and is sometimes ill defined, and vertical gradients are common. Here the effects of vertical gradients and inversion depth on the covariance transform are examined. It is found that a significant dilation-dependent bias in the determination of the boundary layer top may result when using the published method. An alternative approach is developed utilizing multiple wavelet dilations, and is capable of identifying both the upper and lower limits of the backscatter transition zone associated with the inversion while remaining insensitive to mean vertical gradients in the background signal. This approach enables more detailed information on the small-scale structure of the inversion and entrainment zone to be retrieved than is possible using existing techniques.

A marine biogenic source of atmospheric ice-nucleating particles

The amount of ice present in clouds can affect cloud lifetime, precipitation and radiative properties. The formation of ice in clouds is facilitated by the presence of airborne ice-nucleating particles. Sea spray is one of the major global sources of atmospheric particles, but it is unclear to what extent these particles are capable of nucleating ice. Sea-spray aerosol contains large amounts of organic material that is ejected into the atmosphere during bubble bursting at the organically enriched sea–air interface or sea surface microlayer. Here we show that organic material in the sea surface microlayer nucleates ice under conditions relevant for mixed-phase cloud and high-altitude ice cloud formation. The ice-nucleating material is probably biogenic and less than approximately 0.2 micrometres in size. We find that exudates separated from cells of the marine diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana nucleate ice, and propose that organic material associated with phytoplankton cell exudates is a likely candidate for the observed ice-nucleating ability of the microlayer samples. Global model simulations of marine organic aerosol, in combination with our measurements, suggest that marine organic material may be an important source of ice-nucleating particles in remote marine environments such as the Southern Ocean, North Pacific Ocean and North Atlantic Ocean.

Can New Particle Formation Occur in the Clean Marine Boundary Layer

An analysis of new particle formation probability in the marine boundary layer (MBL) is conducted using a detailed aerosol dynamics and gas-phase chemistry model, thermodynamically correct classical binary (H2O-H2SO4) nucleation theory, and recently developed ternary (H2O-H2SO4-NH3) nucleation theory. Additionally, the effect of boundary-layer meteorology (i.e., adiabatic cooling, small scale fluctuations, and entrainment) in enhancing nucleation is also examined. The results indicate that for typical marine conditions, binary nucleation does not occur for any realistic conditions regardless of adiabatic cooling, turbulent fluctuations, or entrainment. For polar marine conditions, binary nucleation does occur due to lower temperatures, and is enhanced due to turbulent fluctuations. An increase in detectable particle sizes (N3>3 nm), is only seen after multiple boundary layer circulations for conditions of high dimethyl sulphide (DMS) concentrations (400 ppt). Under extreme conditions of entrainment of free-troposphere layers containing very low aerosol condensation sinks and extraordinary high sulphuric acid concentrations (>108 molecules cm−3), increases in detectable particles up to 10,000 cm−3 are predicted only in polar marine air, but are viewed as unlikely to occur in reality. Comparison of model simulations with observed values of DMS and sulphuric acid in polar marine air masses suggest that binary nucleation may lead to an enhancement of ≈ 1000 cm−3 in N3 particle concentration, but not to enhancements of ≈ 10,000 cm−3. Ternary nucleation is predicted to occur under realistic sulphuric acid (1.2×107 molecules cm−3) and ammonia (>5 ppt) concentrations; however, significant growth to detectable sizes (N3) only occurs for DMS concentrations of the order of 400 ppt and very low aerosol condensation sinks, but these conditions are thought to be very infrequent in the MBL and are unlikely to make a significant contribution to the general MBL aerosol concentration. It is plausible that the background MBL aerosol concentration could be maintained by a slow, almost undetectable production rate, and not by noticeable nucleation events where large enhancements in N3 concentrations are observed. The former requires sustained DMS concentrations of the order of 100 ppt which seems unlikely. In summary, the occurrence of new particles in the unperturbed MBL would be difficult to explain by DMS emissions alone. DMS emissions can explain the occurrence of thermodynamically stable sulphate clusters, but under most conditions, to grow these clusters to detectable sizes before they are scavenged by coagulation, an additional condensable species other than DMS-derived sulphuric acid would be required. In the event, however, of significant removal of the preexisting aerosol due to precipitation, the MBL aerosol can be replenished through growth of new particle formed through ternary nucleation under moderately high DMS concentrations.

Highlights of Coastal Waves 1996

Some of the highlights of an experiment designed to study coastal atmospheric phenomena along the California coast (Coastal Waves 1996 experiment) are described. This study was designed to address ...

Observations of strong surface radar ducts over the Persian Gulf

Abstract Ducting of microwave radiation is a common phenomenon over the oceans. The height and strength of the duct are controlling factors for radar propagation and must be determined accurately to assess propagation ranges. A surface evaporation duct commonly forms due to the large gradient in specific humidity just above the sea surface; a deeper surface-based or elevated duct frequently is associated with the sudden change in temperature and humidity across the boundary layer inversion. In April 1996 the U.K. Meteorological Office C-130 Hercules research aircraft took part in the U.S. Navy Ship Antisubmarine Warfare Readiness/Effectiveness Measuring exercise (SHAREM-115) in the Persian Gulf by providing meteorological support and making measurements for the study of electromagnetic and electro-optical propagation. The boundary layer structure over the Gulf is influenced strongly by the surrounding desert landmass. Warm dry air flows from the desert over the cooler waters of the Gulf. Heat loss to the ...

A Method for Estimating the Turbulent Kinetic Energy Dissipation Rate from a Vertically Pointing Doppler Lidar, and Independent Evaluation from Balloon-Borne In Situ Measurements

Abstract A method of estimating dissipation rates from a vertically pointing Doppler lidar with high temporal and spatial resolution has been evaluated by comparison with independent measurements derived from a balloon-borne sonic anemometer. This method utilizes the variance of the mean Doppler velocity from a number of sequential samples and requires an estimate of the horizontal wind speed. The noise contribution to the variance can be estimated from the observed signal-to-noise ratio and removed where appropriate. The relative size of the noise variance to the observed variance provides a measure of the confidence in the retrieval. Comparison with in situ dissipation rates derived from the balloon-borne sonic anemometer reveal that this particular Doppler lidar is capable of retrieving dissipation rates over a range of at least three orders of magnitude. This method is most suitable for retrieval of dissipation rates within the convective well-mixed boundary layer where the scales of motion that the D...

The effect on thunderstorm charging of the rate of rime accretion by graupel

Abstract Analysis of laboratory data concerning the charging of small graupel pellets in thunderstorms has shown that the charge transferred to a riming target during collisions with ice crystals is affected by the rate of rime accretion. Earlier, we found that the magnitude of the charges transferred depend on velocity; however, the velocity also controls the rate of target time accretion which affects the sign of the charge transfer with higher accretion rates favoring positive timers during crystal collisions. Experiments have now been conducted to confirm this effect and a set of equations are presented describing the charge transfer as a function of ice crystal size, velocity, temperature and rime accretion rate. As a first step in determining the importance of the new formulations on thunderstorm electrification, they have been tested in a one-dimensional numerical model. The model results indicate that the normal thunderstorm positive dipole can be generated in the observed time by means of ice crystal/graupel interactions.

The Effects of High Liquid Water Content on Thunderstorm Charging

Charge transfer to a riming graupel target during interactions with ice crystals has been investigated in the laboratory. When liquid water contents sufficiently high to cause wet growth are achieved, the charge transfer falls to values which are insignificant to thunderstorm electrification. The implications of this null result to a recent analysis of thunderstorm-charging processes by Williams et al. (1991) are discussed.

Warm-air advection, air mass transformation and fog causes rapid ice melt

Direct observations during intense warm-air advection over the East Siberian Sea reveal a period of rapid sea-ice melt. A semistationary, high-pressure system north of the Bering Strait forced northward advection of warm, moist air from the continent. Air-mass transformation over melting sea ice formed a strong, surface-based temperature inversion in which dense fog formed. This induced a positive net longwave radiation at the surface while reducing net solar radiation only marginally; the inversion also resulted in downward turbulent heat flux. The sum of these processes enhanced the surface energy flux by an average of similar to 15Wm(-2) for a week. Satellite images before and after the episode show sea-ice concentrations decreasing from > 90% to similar to 50% over a large area affected by the air-mass transformation. We argue that this rapid melt was triggered by the increased heat flux from the atmosphere due to the warm-air advection.

A Case Study of Ships Forming and Not Forming Tracks in Moderately Polluted Clouds

The effects of anthropogenic particulate emissions from ships on the radiative, microphysical, and chemical properties of moderately polluted marine stratiform clouds are examined. A case study of two ships in the same air mass is presented where one of the vessels caused a discernible ship track while the other did not. In situ measurements of cloud droplet size distributions, liquid water content, and cloud radiative properties, as well as aerosol size distributions (outside cloud, interstitial, and cloud droplet residual particles) and aerosol chemistry, are presented. These are related to measurements of cloud radiative properties. The differences between the aerosol in the two ship plumes are discussed; these indicate that combustion-derived particles in the size range of about 0.03‐0.3-mm radius were those that caused the microphysical changes in the clouds that were responsible for the ship track. The authors examine the processes behind ship track formation in a moderately polluted marine boundary layer as an example of the effects that anthropogenic particulate pollution can have in the albedo of marine stratiform clouds.