Ian R. Newby-Clark

Conceiving the Past and Future

The authors compared peoples views of their histories and futures by asking them to recall and anticipate personally significant episodes. It was hypothesized and found in Study 1 that individuals spontaneously recall an affectively mixed past, containing both “highs” and “lows,” whereas they anticipate homogeneously ideal futures. It was further hypothesized that people devote little thought to negative futures, and this was tested directly in Studies 2 and 3 by assessing how quickly past and likely future events came to mind. Asked to report positive and negative episodes from the past and future, participants took longer to generate future negative than positive events. Speed of recall was unaffected by the valence of past episodes. In Study 4, the response latency difference was again replicated for future events and it was demonstrated that people are slower in both generating negative future events and judging those events as likely.

Efficacy of a Sexual Assault Resistance Program for University Women

BACKGROUND Young women attending university are at substantial risk for being sexually assaulted, primarily by male acquaintances, but effective strategies to reduce this risk remain elusive. METHODS We randomly assigned first-year female students at three universities in Canada to the Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act Sexual Assault Resistance program (resistance group) or to a session providing access to brochures on sexual assault, as was common university practice (control group). The resistance program consists of four 3-hour units in which information is provided and skills are taught and practiced, with the goal of being able to assess risk from acquaintances, overcome emotional barriers in acknowledging danger, and engage in effective verbal and physical self-defense. The primary outcome was completed rape, as measured by the Sexual Experiences Survey-Short Form Victimization, during 1 year of follow-up. RESULTS A total of 451 women were assigned to the resistance group and 442 women to the control group. Of the women assigned to the resistance group, 91% attended at least three of the four units. The 1-year risk of completed rape was significantly lower in the resistance group than in the control group (5.2% vs. 9.8%; relative risk reduction, 46.3% [95% confidence interval, 6.8 to 69.1]; P=0.02). The 1-year risk of attempted rape was also significantly lower in the resistance group (3.4% vs. 9.3%, P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS A rigorously designed and executed sexual assault resistance program was successful in decreasing the occurrence of rape, attempted rape, and other forms of victimization among first-year university women. (Funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the University of Windsor; SARE ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01338428.).

Types and Precipitants of Growth and Decline in Emerging Adulthood

To further explore central developmental themes of emerging adulthood, the authors conducted a study that combines qualitative and quantitative data about the types of personal growth and decline reported by a sample of emerging adults, who also described the life events and other experiences that brought about these personal changes. After completing a 42-item inventory of types of growth and decline, participants wrote descriptions of the life events and other experiences to which they attributed these personal changes. At least 50% of the participants reported growth in the relating to others, new possibilities, and personal strength domains. Their descriptive accounts attributed the growth largely to eventful experiences associated with their recent transition to university and to events involving the participants’ close social networks. The discussion centers on the study’s contribution to our understanding of development in emerging adulthood.

Sympathetic Magic and Gambling: Adherence to the Law of Contagion Varies with Gambling Severity

This study assessed adherence to the law of contagion by 118 undergraduate students (39 males). Participants were students who played a slot machine game after viewing a prior player who seemed to be winning (“lucky” condition) or losing (“unlucky” condition). Adherence to the law of contagion was assessed by the selection of the coin holder used by a “lucky” prior player and the avoidance of the coin holder used by an “unlucky” prior player. Contagion varied directly with scores on the Problem Gambling Severity Index and scores on the Luck/Perseverance subscale of the Gamblers’ Belief Questionnaire (Steenbergh et al. in Psychol Addict Behav 16(2):143–149, 2002). Gamblers high in problem severity chose the “lucky” coin holder and avoided the “unlucky” coin holder significantly more than gamblers low in problem severity. Problem gamblers, therefore, exhibit evidence of magical thinking related to the transfer of a “lucky” essence. The same was the case for individuals with a strong level of belief that sheer continuation in gambling (luck perseverance) results in success and for individuals who believe that luck is a personal rather than a situational characteristic. All three variables (problem gambling severity, luck perseverance and personal luck) had direct effects on behavior reflecting irrational magical thinking. A belief that knowledge or skill has a role in successful gaming was unrelated to magical thinking. These findings suggest potential foci for cognitive interventions with problem gamblers and those with non-skill based evidence of irrational thinking.

Sexual violence in the lives of first-year university women in Canada: no improvements in the 21st century

BackgroundSummarizes the frequency, type, and context of sexual assault in a large sample of first-year university women at three Canadian universities.MethodsAs part of a randomized controlled trial assessing the efficacy of a sexual assault resistance education program, baseline data were collected from women between ages of 17 and 24 using computerized surveys. Participants’ experience with sexual victimization since the age of 14 years was assessed using the Sexual Experiences Survey--Short Form Victimization (SES-SFV).ResultsAmong 899 first-year university women (mean age = 18.5 years), 58.7% (95% CI: 55.4%, 62.0%) had experienced one or more forms of victimization since the age of 14 years, 35.0% (95% CI: 31.9%, 38.3%) had experienced at least one completed or attempted rape, and 23.5% (95% CI: 20.7%, 26.4%) had been raped. Among the 211 rape victims, 46.4% (95% CI: 39.7%, 53.2%) had experienced more than one type of assault (oral, vaginal, anal) in a single incident or across multiple incidents. More than three-quarters (79.6%; 95% CI: 74.2%, 85.1%) of the rapes occurred while women were incapacitated by alcohol or drugs. One-third (33.3%) of women had previous self-defence training, but few (4.0%) had previous sexual assault education.ConclusionsFindings from the first large Canadian study of university women since the 1990s indicate that a large proportion of women arrive on campuses with histories of sexual victimization, and they are generally unprepared for the perpetrators they may face during their academic years. There is an urgent need for effective rape prevention programs on university campuses.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT01338428. Registered 13 April 2011.

The Moderating Effect of Identity Style on the Relation Between Adolescent Problem Behavior and Quality of Psychological Functioning

The present study examines the moderating effect of identity decision-making styles on the relation between adolescent problem behavior and quality of psychological functioning. Participants were 1,857 adolescents aged 16 and 17 who completed the Youth Self-Report Questionnaire in Cycle 4 of the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. It was hypothesized that the negative relation between problem behavior involvement and quality of psychological functioning would be stronger for individuals classified as having a predominantly diffuse-avoidant identity processing style than for normative or informational participants, and that this relation would be stronger in the normative group than in the informational group. All hypotheses were supported in a structural equation model linking problem behavior and psychological functioning.

Secondary and 2-Year Outcomes of a Sexual Assault Resistance Program for University Women

We report the secondary outcomes and longevity of efficacy from a randomized controlled trial that evaluated a novel sexual assault resistance program designed for first-year women university students. Participants (N = 893) were randomly assigned to receive the Enhanced Assess, Acknowledge, Act (EAAA) program or a selection of brochures (control). Perception of personal risk, self-defense self-efficacy, and rape myth acceptance was assessed at baseline; 1-week postintervention; and 6-, 12-, 18-, and 24-month postrandomization. Risk detection was assessed at 1 week, 6 months, and 12 months. Sexual assault experience and knowledge of effective resistance strategies were assessed at all follow-ups. The EAAA program produced significant increases in women’s perception of personal risk, self-defense self-efficacy, and knowledge of effective (forceful verbal and physical) resistance strategies; the program also produced decreases in general rape myth acceptance and woman blaming over the entire 24-month follow-up period. Risk detection was significantly improved for the intervention group at post-test. The program significantly reduced the risk of completed and attempted rape, attempted coercion, and nonconsensual sexual contact over the entire follow-up period, yielding reductions between 30% and 64% at 2 years. The EAAA program produces long-lasting changes in secondary outcomes and in the incidence of sexual assault experienced by women students. Universities can reduce the harm and the negative health consequences that young women experience as a result of campus sexual assault by implementing this program. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index.

Ambivalence and Accessibility

Values reflect, and can drive, human strivings (Verplanken and Holland 2002). We value peace and strive for a less violent world. We value benevolence and strive to be loving. We value independence and strive for autonomy. Sometimes, however, our values conflict (e.g., Schwartz 1996; Tetlock et al. 1996). The nature of psychologists’ taxonomies of values reflects this psychological reality. According to Schwartz, values fall along two dimensions. The first dimension, openness to change versus conservation, reflects the chronic conflict between one’s need to be stimulated and self-directed, and the equally important need for stability. A first year undergraduate student may, for example, feel exhilarated at the prospect of an independent lifestyle when he arrives at the residence hall on the first day of class. Yet there may well be some ambivalence when that same student realizes that the reliable routines and security of home life are a thing of the past (at least until vacation). The second dimension, self-enhancement versus self-transcendence, reflects a similarly fundamental conflict between the need for power and achievement and the need to be benevolent. A manager wants to do well at her job and to exercise power when interacting with her subordinates. At the same time, workplaces are social milieus where positive interpersonal relationships also tend to be valued; as a result, the manager will likely feel conflicted from time to time.

To daydream is to imagine events: Conceptual, empirical, and theoretical considerations

We propose defining daydreaming as “imagining events.” In support, we give a brief account of past daydreaming research and the various definitions of daydreaming, whether stated or implied, in those works. We argue that this variation in definition, and in particular the equating of daydreaming with mind-wandering, is problematic. Our definition represents the core of the concept, resists conflation with mind-wandering and, of scientific benefit, does not entail a strong theoretical position.

What I am doing to stop rape: The personal/intellectual journey of a heterosexual male investigator on a sexual assault resistance education intervention

A heterosexual male reflects on his complex personal/intellectual journey as an investigator on a sexual assault resistance education intervention that trains women to resist sexual assault. Along the way, the author has confronted and worked through criticisms of the sexual assault resistance education program, his view of the everyday social world has changed radically and, perhaps most surprising, he has dealt with his own hurt feelings. Ultimately, his experiences have further strengthened his already strong commitment to stopping rape.