Ieso de Miranda Castro

Bioleaching of zinc and nickel from silicates using Aspergillus niger cultures

In this work, we investigated the role of bacteria from the genera Bacillus and Pseudomonas and fungi from the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium in the leaching process of two different silicates (calamine and garnierite). Since the results obtained with A. niger were better than those with different bacteria, a more detailed investigation of the leaching process with this microorganism was conducted. Moreover, although it is clear that the citric acid generated by fungi could be an important leaching agent acting in the solubilization of the used silicates, other products of metabolism could be involved. Related to this, the results obtained with chemical leaching using low concentrations of citric acid (lower than 10 mM) showed, for both calamine and garnierite, that the respective dissolution of zinc and nickel was much lower when compared to those processes in which cultures or supernatant liquor of A. niger cultures were used and in which the maximum concentration of citric acid was 8 mM. The results obtained also suggest that the type of mineral (and/or the metal present in it) presents a different susceptibility to the bioleaching process and also demonstrate that depending of the situation, the presence of the fungi cells seem to improve the leaching process. From a practical point of view, the high yield rate of extracting metals from silicates obtained by using for example, supernatant liquors of A. niger cultures, is noteworthy. This bioleaching process present two advantages as compared to conventional chemical leaching processes: (a) the very low concentrations of organic compounds present in such a situation represent a lower ecological risk; and (b) even with a lower final yield, the economical cost of a such process. Both characteristics could facilitate its industrial application.

Glucose-induced activation of plasma membrane H+-ATPase in mutants of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae affected in cAMP metabolism, cAMP-dependent protein phosphorylation and the initiation of glycolysis

Addition of glucose-related fermentable sugars or protonophores to derepressed cells of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae causes a 3- to 4-fold activation of the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase within a few minutes. These conditions are known to cause rapid increases in the cAMP level. In yeast strains carrying temperature-sensitive mutations in genes required for cAMP synthesis, incubation at the restrictive temperature reduced the extent of H(+)-ATPase activation. Incubation of non-temperature-sensitive strains, however, at such temperatures also caused reduction of H(+)-ATPase activation. Yeast strains which are specifically deficient in the glucose-induced cAMP increase (and not in basal cAMP synthesis) still showed plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase activation. Yeast mutants with widely divergent activity levels of cAMP-dependent protein kinase displayed very similar levels of activation of the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase. This was also true for a yeast mutant carrying a deletion in the CDC25 gene. These results show that the cAMP-protein kinase A signaling pathway is not required for glucose activation of the H(+)-ATPase. They also contradict the specific requirement of the CDC25 gene product. Experiments with yeast strains carrying point or deletion mutations in the genes coding for the sugar phosphorylating enzymes hexokinase PI and PII and glucokinase showed that activation of the H(+)-ATPase with glucose or fructose was completely dependent on the presence of a kinase able to phosphorylate the sugar. These and other data concerning the role of initial sugar metabolism in triggering activation are consistent with the idea that the glucose-induced activation pathways of cAMP-synthesis and H(+)-ATPase have a common initiation point.

The PLC1 encoded phospholipase C in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is essential for glucose-induced phosphatidylinositol turnover and activation of plasma membrane H -ATPase.

Addition of glucose to glucose-deprived cells of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae triggers rapid turnover of phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylinositol-phosphate and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. Glucose stimulation of PI turnover was measured both as an increase in the specific ratio of 32P-labeling and as an increase in the level of diacylglycerol after addition of glucose. Glucose also causes rapid activation of plasma membrane H+-ATPase. We show that in a mutant lacking the PLC1 encoded phospholipase C, both processes were strongly reduced. Compound 48/80, a known inhibitor of mammalian phospholipase C, inhibits both processes. However, activation of the plasma membrane H+-ATPase is only inhibited by concentrations of compound 48/80 that strongly inhibit phospholipid turnover. Growth was inhibited by even lower concentrations. Our data suggest that in yeast cells, glucose triggers through activation of the PLC1 gene product a signaling pathway initiated by phosphatidylinositol turnover and involved in activation of the plasma membrane H+-ATPase.

Adhesion to the yeast cell surface as a mechanism for trapping pathogenic bacteria by Saccharomyces probiotics

Recently, much attention has been given to the use of probiotics as an adjuvant for the prevention or treatment of gastrointestinal pathology. The great advantage of therapy with probiotics is that they have few side effects such as selection of resistant bacteria or disturbance of the intestinal microbiota, which occur when antibiotics are used. Adhesion of pathogenic bacteria onto the surface of probiotics instead of onto intestinal receptors could explain part of the probiotic effect. Thus, this study evaluated the adhesion of pathogenic bacteria onto the cell wall of Saccharomyces boulardii and Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains UFMG 905, W303 and BY4741. To understand the mechanism of adhesion of pathogens to yeast, cell-wall mutants of the parental strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae BY4741 were used because of the difficulty of mutating polyploid yeast, as is the case for Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces boulardii. The tests of adhesion showed that, among 11 enteropathogenic bacteria tested, only Escherichia coli, Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Typhi adhered to the surface of Saccharomyces boulardii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae UFMG 905 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae BY4741. The presence of mannose, and to some extent bile salts, inhibited this adhesion, which was not dependent on yeast viability. Among 44 cell-wall mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae BY4741, five lost the ability to fix the bacteria. Electron microscopy showed that the phenomenon of yeast-bacteria adhesion occurred both in vitro and in vivo (in the digestive tract of dixenic mice). In conclusion, some pathogenic bacteria were captured on the surface of Saccharomyces boulardii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae UFMG 905 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae BY4741, thus preventing their adhesion to specific receptors on the intestinal epithelium and their subsequent invasion of the host.

Glucose-induced activation of the plasma membrane H+ -ATPase in Fusarium oxysporum

Addition of glucose and other sugars to derepressed cells of the fungus Fusarium oxysporum var. lini triggered activation of the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase within 5 min. Glucose was the best activator while galactose and lactose had a lesser effect. The activation was not prevented by previous addition of cycloheximide and it was fully reversible when the glucose was removed. The activation process in vivo also caused changes in the kinetic properties of the enzyme. The non-activated enzyme had an apparent Km of about 3.2 mM for ATP whereas the activated enzyme showed an apparent Km of 0.26 mM. In addition, the pH optimum of the H(+)-ATPase changed from 6.0 to 7.5 upon activation. The activated enzyme was more sensitive to inhibition by vanadate. When F. oxysporum was cultivated in media containing glucose as the major carbon source, enhanced H(+)-ATPase activity was largely confined to the period corresponding to the lag phase, i.e. just before the start of acidification of the medium. This suggests that the activation process might play a role in the onset of extracellular acidification. Addition of glucose to F. oxysporum var. lini cells also caused an increase in the cAMP level. No reliable increase could be demonstrated for the other sugars. Addition of proton ionophores such as DNP and CCCP at pH 5.0 caused both a large increase in the intracellular level of cAMP and in the activity of the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase. Inhibition of the DNP-induced increase in the cAMP level by acridine orange also resulted in inhibition of the activation of plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Purification and characterization of an extracellular trypsin-like protease of Fusarium oxysporum var. lini.

An alkaline serineprotease, capable of hydrolyzing Nalpha-benzoyl- dl arginine p-nitroanilide, was secreted by Fusarium oxysporum var. lini grown in the presence of gelatin as the sole nitrogen and carbon source. The protease was purified 65-fold to electrophoretic homogenity from the culture supernatant in a three-step procedure comprising QSepharose chromatography, affinity chromatography, and FPLC on a MonoQ column. SDS-PAGE analysis of the purified protein indicated an estimated molecular mass of 41 kDa. The protease had optimum activity at a reaction temperature of 45 degrees C and showed a rapid decrease of activity at 48 degrees C. The optimum pH was around 8.0. Characterization of the protease showed that Ca2+ and Mg2+ cations increased the activity, which was not inhibited by EDTA or 1,10-phenanthroline. The enzyme activity on Nalpha-benzoyl-DL arginine p-nitroanilide was inhibited by 4-(2-aminoethyl)-benzenesulfonyl fluoride hydrochloride, p-aminobenzamidine dihydrochloride, aprotinin, 3-4 dichloroisocoumarin, and N-tosyl-L-lysine chloromethyl ketone. The enzyme is also inhibited by substrate concentrations higher than 2.5 x 10(-4)M. The protease had a Michaelis-Menten constant of 0.16 mM and a V(max) of 0.60 mumol released product.min(-1).mg(-1) enzyme when assayed in a non-inhibiting substrate concentration. The activity on Nalpha-benzoyl- dl arginine p-nitroanilide was competitively inhibited by p-aminobenzamidine dihydrochoride. A K(i) value of 0.04 mM was obtained.

The involvement of calcium carriers and of the vacuole in the glucose-induced calcium signaling and activation of the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells.

Previous work from our laboratories demonstrated that the sugar-induced activation of plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is dependent on calcium metabolism with the contribution of calcium influx from external medium. Our results demonstrate that a glucose-induced calcium (GIC) transporter, a new and still unidentified calcium carrier, sensitive to nifedipine and gadolinium and activated by glucose addition, seems to be partially involved in the glucose-induced activation of the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase. On the other hand, the importance of calcium carriers that can release calcium from internal stores was analyzed in glucose-induced calcium signaling and activation of plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase, in experimental conditions presenting very low external calcium concentrations. Therefore the aim was also to investigate how the vacuole, through the participation of both Ca(2+)-ATPase Pmc1 and the TRP homologue calcium channel Yvc1 (respectively, encoded by the genes PMC1 and YVC1) contributes to control the intracellular calcium availability and the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase activation in response to glucose. In strains presenting a single deletion in YVC1 gene or a double deletion in YVC1 and PMC1 genes, both glucose-induced calcium signaling and activation of the H(+)-ATPase are nearly abolished. These results suggest that Yvc1 calcium channel is an important component of this signal transduction pathway activated in response to glucose addition. We also found that by a still undefined mechanism Yvc1 activation seems to correlate with the changes in the intracellular level of IP(3). Taken together, these data demonstrate that glucose addition to yeast cells exposed to low external calcium concentrations affects calcium uptake and the activity of the vacuolar calcium channel Yvc1, contributing to the occurrence of calcium signaling connected to plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase activation.

Carbonyl cyanide m‐chlorophenylhydrazone induced calcium signaling and activation of plasma membrane H+‐ATPase in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an enzyme that plays a very important role in the yeast physiology. The addition of protonophores, such as 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) and carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), also triggers a clear in vivo activation of this enzyme. Here, we demonstrate that CCCP-induced activation of the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase shares some similarities with the sugar-induced activation of the enzyme. Phospholipase C and protein kinase C activities are essential for this activation process while Gpa2p, a G protein involved in the glucose-induced activation of the ATPase, is not required. CCCP also induces a phospholipase C-dependent increase in intracellular calcium. Moreover, we show that the availability of extracellular calcium is required for CCCP stimulation of H(+)-ATPase, suggesting a possible connection between calcium signaling and activation of ATPase.

Strategies to select yeast starters cultures for production of flavor compounds in cachaça fermentations

In this work, we have used classical genetics techniques to find improved starter strains to produce cachaça with superior sensorial quality. Our strategy included the selection of yeast strains resistant to 5,5′,5″-trifluor-d,l-leucine (TLF) and cerulenin, since these strains produce higher levels of higher alcohols and esters than parental strains. However, no clear relationship was observed when levels of flavoring compounds were compared with the levels expression of the genes (BAT1, BAT2, ATF2, EEB1 genes) involved with the biosynthesis of flavoring compounds. Furthermore, we determined the stability of phenotypes considered as the best indicators of the quality of the cachaça for a parental strain and its segregants. By applying the principal component analysis, a cluster of segregants, showing a high number of characteristics similar to the parental strain, was recognized. One segregant, that was resistant to TLF and cerulenin, also showed growth stability after six consecutive replications on plates containing high concentrations of sugar and ethanol. “Cachaça” produced at laboratory scale using a parental strain and this segregant showed a higher level of flavoring compounds. Both strains predominated in an open fermentative process through seven cycles, as was shown by mitochondrial restriction fragment length polymorphisms analysis. Based on the physical chemical composition of the obtained products, the results demonstrate the usefulness of the developed strategies for the selection of yeast strains to be used as starters in “cachaça” production.

Glycerol utilization in Fusarium oxysporum var. lini: regulation of transport and metabolism.

Glycerol was transported in the fungus Fusarium oxysporum var. lini by a facilitated diffusion transport system with a half-saturation constant, Ks, of 0.5 mM and a maximum velocity, Vmax, of 0.9 mmol (g dry wt)-1 h-1 at pH 5 and 25 degrees C. 1,2-Propanediol was a competitive inhibitor of glycerol transport, but the cells did not actively accumulate 1,2-propanediol. The transport system was partially constitutive. In cells grown in the presence of glucose, glycerol was not transported, indicating that the synthesis of the system was under glucose repression. Glycerol kinase and NADP(+)-dependent glycerol dehydrogenase activities were present under all physiological conditions tested. A flavin-dependent glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase was induced only when glycerol was the sole energy source in the medium. This enzyme, together with the transport system, constitute the regulated steps in the glycerol metabolic pathway.