İlhan Kayan

Harbor areas at ancient Troy: Sedimentology and geomorphology complement Homer's Iliad

For at least two thousand years scholars have debated the location of Troy and the events and geographic features described in Homers Iliad . Geologic evidence is used to present a series of maps of the Trojan plain that show the geomorphic changes over the past six millennia. The geologic evidence correlates very well with the relevant Homeric geography.

Holocene raised shorelines on the Hatay coasts (Turkey): Palaeoecological and tectonic implications☆

Abstract The marks of two emerged shorelines (superimposed erosional notches, and in-situ bioconstructed rims with the vermetid Dendropoma ) on both sides of the Orontes Delta, near the border between Turkey and Syria, are interpreted as representing the occurrence of two rapid uplifts during the late Holocene rather than representing eustatic fluctuations of climatic origin as claimed by previous authors in other areas of the eastern Mediterranean. The upper shoreline, which has an elevation of about +2.0 m south of the delta and which increases from + 2.5 m to + 3.0 m between 2 and 8 km north of the delta, has been radiocarbon dated (four dates) to between 5170 ± 190 and 2595 ± 100 yrs B.P. The lower shoreline, indicating a former relative sea level situated consistently at about + 0.7 to + 0.8 m, has yielded seven dates between 2910 ± 95 and 1345 ± 70 yrs B.P., the latter age being that of fossil oyster shells collected in growth position on a quay of the ancient harbour of Seleucia Pieria. If the possible contamination of some oyster shells is taken into account, the two uplift movements may be dated at around 2500 ± 100 yrs B.P. for the upper shoreline and to historical times for the lower shoreline, probably in July 551 A.D. when devastating earthquake damage was reported from all the Levant regions. The age of the second uplift movement falls within the possible time span of a major tectonic event, the Early Byzantine Tectonic Paroxysm (EBTP), which about 1500 yrs B.P. caused sudden relative sea-level changes in various areas of the eastern Mediterranean (Antikythira, western Crete, and Alanya area, the Lebanon, northern Cyprus, etc.). In the Hatay region, the effect of the EBTP has been a reactivation of local fault lines, probably in connection with movements on the East Anatolian Fault system. This has contributed a new jerk to the long-term trend of uplift in this coastal area.

Geomorphic Reconstructions in the Environs of Ancient Troy

Sea level rise, deltaic progradation, and floodplain aggradation have changed the landscape in the vicinity of ancient Troy during the past 10,000 years. With the waning of the last major world glaciation and resultant sea level rise and fluctuation, a marine embayment protruded nearly 10 kilometers south of the site of Troy at Hisarlik in the Troad of northwest Turkey. As the sea approached its present level approximately 6000 years ago, fluvial and marine deposition caused a northerly migration of the delta and floodplain of the Scamander and Simois Rivers past the site of Troy toward the present-day coast about 6 kilometers north of the site. In view of these major changes in morphology, interpretations of ancient geographies related to historical or historical-mythological settings must be changed. A number of paleogeographic maps have been reconstructed with the use of subsurface data that records the continuing landscape change since the first occupancy of the site at Troy 5000 years ago. These show that ancient Troy was located on an embayment of the sea. If the Trojan War occurred, then the axis of the battlefield and associated events must be relocated to the south and west of Troy.

Holocene stratigraphy and geomorphological evolution of the Aegean coastal plains of Anatolia

Abstract Three main stages can be distinguished in the sedimentary development and geomorphological formation of the present delta plains on the Aegean coast of Turkey. The Early Holocene is characterized by post-glacial transgression and dependent sedimentation. The Middle Holocene was the period when sea level reached the present level, and apart from small fluctuations, stopped rising. Alluviation and deltaic progradation were prevalent during this transition period from marine to terrestrial environments. As for the Late Holocene, deltaic progradation slowed down and delta plains were covered by floodplain sediments. These characteristics can be observed in the same sequence throughout the Aegean coast of Turkey.

Late Holocene sea-level changes on the western Anatolian coast

Abstract Late Holocene sea level changes in two widely separated parts (Datca and Canakkale) of the western coast of Anatolia have been studied. Geomorphic features were mapped and subsurface depositional environments were interpreted from the evidence obtained from bore-holes in Holocene coastal sedimentary deposits. In addition, geomorphological reconstructions of the former shorelines and related sea-level changes are established on the basis of archaeological data. There are important parallels between the sea-level changes observed in these two distant coastal areas and in other coastal parts of Western Anatolia. The sea-level curve for the Dalacak area shows that sea level rose rapidly to the present position or a little (about 50 cm) higher and rias or estuaries formed at the principal river mouths and coastal embayments about 6000-5000 yr ago. However, some geomorphological and archaeological evidence show that sea level descended about two meters during the 4th millennium B.P. after the first rising stage. Archaeological evidence related to the Dorians who settled on Dalacak and built their city Old Knidos, imply that the sea level was rising but still it was a little lower than the present when the first harbours of the city were being built. Since 3000 B.P. sea level has risen to the present position generally. A precise sea level curve has not been drawn for the Besige area separately yet because of some dating problems. However, there is quite a parallel between Dalacak and Besige on the Late Holocene sea level changes. This implies that the sea level has risen along the western coast of Anatolia in the similar order generally, in spite of recent tectonic formation and the block faulted structure of the region. However, more detailed local studies are necessary to confirm this conclusion.

Sedimentary Facies Patterns and the Interpretation of Paleogeographies of Ancient Troia

We present a series of maps of ancient geographies in the Aegean area, based on sedimentological and fossil evidence. Coupled with information from the Classics and comparative modern vs. ancient analogs, we present interpretations of geographic changes in the vicinity of Troia over the past six millennia. Our geomorphologies of ancient Troia might well aid classicists and archaeologists in their understanding of the past and the events in Homer’s Iliad.

Bronze Age Regression and Change of Sedimentation on the Aegean Coastal Plains of Anatolia (Turkey)

Borehole studies indicate three stratigraphical units in the Holocene sediments on the Aegean coastal plains of Anatolia. These are early Holocene shallow marine- estuarine muds at the bottom, fine sandy-silty flood-plain sediments at the top, and a transition layer between them. The transition layer, a few meters thick and a few meters below the present sea-level, generally consists of the coarse sandy sediments of shallow coastal environments. C14 datings show that the change in sedimentation occurred during the third millennium BC In addition, relative sea-level fell a few meters during the same period, which accelerated deltaic progression. The transition layer has similar characteristics all along the coastal plains investigated, indicating that the change in sedimentation is a result of normal geomorphological development dependent on sea-level changes; local or regional tectonic movements and sediment compactions are not important here. Climatic-ecstatic sea-level changes may be considered the best explanation for the sedimentation change.

Results of the struggle at ancient Ephesus: natural processes 1, human intervention 0

Abstract Coastal areas have been prime locations for habitation and commerce. Early authors such as Pausanias (second century CE), and Strabo (64 or 63 BCE–24 CE) noted the impacts of shoreline changes. Geomorphological and subsurface geological data, combined with archaeological excavation and ancient texts, indicate a long interplay between natural processes of estuarine infilling by sediments from the Küçük Menderes River (ancient Cayster River) and multiple attempts of human intervention to preserve the harbours of Ephesus. Strabo noted that harbour engineering efforts there, such as the construction of a mole to prevent siltation, instead created a sediment trap that made things worse. The pre-Holocene river valley was inundated by Holocene sea-level rise that formed the ancient Gulf of Ephesus. Extensive palaeogeographical studies, based on sediment coring, geomorphology, archaeology and history, have provided details of the problems the inhabitants faced in keeping vital harbours in operation. Dating and analysis of sedimentary deposits has allowed the description of shifting river courses, floodplain changes, human intervention, and anthropogenic deposits at Ephesus. During and following Classical times sediment deposition rapidly began to fill in the embayment, requiring the inhabitants to regularly shift the harbours westward. Ultimately, it was to no avail.

Geoarchaeological Interpretations of the “Trojan Bay”

Sea-level rise during the Holocene brought about a ria-type bay (Troian Bay) in the lower part of the Karamenderes (Scamander) valley which intruded approx. 17 km up to the south of the present plain about 7000–6000 years ago. Since then, alluviation and deltaic progradation has moved the shoreline north of the Canakkale Strait (Dardanelles). A relative fall in sea level of about 2 m in the Bronze Age accelerated this process. Thus, Troia was a coastal settlement at first, while the area to the west in periods IV, V and VI was a broad deltaic swamp. The sea in the coastal zone of the Karamenderes delta plain was very shallow, and the land was covered by swamps during the entire progradation period. Therefore, the geographical environment has never been suitable for the establishment of an important harbour or city development based on harbour activity.

Stratigraphy, Geochemistry and Geochronometry of Sedimentary Archives Around Hisarlık Hill — a Pilot Study

The aim of this geoarchaeological pilot study is to investigate to what extent geochemical and geochronometric techniques can be used in order to decipher the landscape development around Hisarlik hill and to detect events that left traces in the sedimentary archives encircling the Troia settlement area. Three drill holes close to and one further away from the hill were sunk up to 23 m below ground level into the sediments at today’s footslope and alluvial plain positions. The stratigraphy and sedimentology of the cores were investigated. In addition, geochemical analyses as well as luminescence (OSL) and 14C dating were carried out on samples taken from the drill cores. Detailed stratigraphic and geochemical analyses are not only relevant for landscape reconstruction, but also for identifying the facies suitable for luminescence dating. Hill-slope sediments and some alluvial deposits are considered to yield reliable ages. Major landscape changes by sediment accumulation occurred during the Troia VI and IX periods.