Ilona Boniwell

A Global Look at Time: A 24-Country Study of the Equivalence of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory

In this article, we assess the structural equivalence of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) across 26 samples from 24 countries (N = 12,200). The ZTPI is proven to be a valid and reliable index of individual differences in time perspective across five temporal categories: Past Negative, Past Positive, Present Fatalistic, Present Hedonistic, and Future. We obtained evidence for invariance of 36 items (out of 56) and also the five-factor structure of ZTPI across 23 countries. The short ZTPI scales are reliable for country-level analysis, whereas we recommend the use of the full scales for individual-level analysis. The short version of ZTPI will further promote integration of research in the time perspective domain in relation to many different psycho-social processes.

A question of balance: Time perspective and well-being in British and Russian samples

Two studies were conducted investigating the relationship between the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) scales and well-being measures in British (N = 179) and Russian (N = 289) student samples. On the basis of person-oriented approach, a cluster-analysis operationalization of Balanced Time Perspective (BTP) using ZTPI was proposed and validated, demonstrating more evidence for its validity than the previously suggested cut-off-point approach. Four distinct time perspective patterns were discovered in both samples: future-oriented, present-oriented, balanced and negative. The clusters revealed significant differences in well-being, with members of the BTP cluster demonstrating the highest scores in both samples. The relationship between ZTPI and Temporal Life Satisfaction Scale in the British sample was found to be non-uniform for past, present and future. Based on these findings, a distinction between three aspects of time perspective is theoretically proposed, and its implications for the future development of the ZTPI are discussed.

Teaching Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) to students: The effects of MBCT on the levels of Mindfulness and Subjective Well-Being

This study aimed to address the gap in the literature considering empirical evidence in support of the assumption that Mindfulness is the mediating factor in the positive outcomes of Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) and Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programmes, and to further examine the link between Mindfulness and Subjective Well Being. The research question was whether MBCT would increase participants’ levels of Mindfulness and Satisfaction with Life and decrease participants’ level of Negative Affect. A Repeated Measures (Test–Retest) within participants design was employed and fifteen Counselling students at the University of East London provided data anonymously at the beginning and end of MBCT programme by completing the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI) (Walach, Buchheld, Buttenmuller, Kleinknecht, & Schmidt, 2006), Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener, Emmons, Larsen & Griffin, 1985) and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (Watson, Clark & Tellegen, 1988). The results indicated that by the end of the MBCT programme: participants’ level of Mindfulness significantly increased; Positive Affect remained unchanged; Negative Affect significantly decreased; a strong trend in the data indicated an increase in participants’ Satisfaction With Life but failed to reach a statistically significant level; Mindfulness and Negative Affect were significantly negatively correlated, while Mindfulness and Satisfaction With Life were not found to be associated. A longer practice time of Mindfulness during the programme was found to be significantly correlated with a higher level of Mindfulness at the end of the programme. The results were interpreted in support of the assumption that Mindfulness has an important role as a mediating factor in symptoms relief and positive outcomes following participation on Mindfulness programmes. The results also support of Brown and Ryans (2003) conclusion regarding the role of Mindfulness in enhancing Well Being. A Positive Psychology framework was applied in interpreting the data and it was suggested that there was ground to believe that Mindfulness can be integrated well, as a concept and as a therapeutic intervention, into the field of Positive Psychology.

Teaching happiness at school: Non-randomised controlled mixed-methods feasibility study on the effectiveness of Personal Well-Being Lessons

The paper presents an educational initiative to develop a separate well-being curriculum for a federation of schools in south-east London. A mixed-methods study was undertaken to evaluate the feasibility of the curriculum run biweekly in Year 7 (age 11–12, N = 96). The study utilised a non-randomised repeated measures design with a control group (N = 68) using general life satisfaction, domain life satisfaction and affect balance as outcome variables. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with four students, two teachers and the principal of the intervention school. The results indicated significant buffering effect of the intervention in protecting students against the decline of satisfaction with self, satisfaction with friends, positive affect and the increase in negative affect throughout the first year of middle school. The qualitative data shed light on explicit learning, psychological outcomes and challenges associated with the programme. Overall, the data indicate a positive impact of the well-being curriculum.

Time Perspective Coaching

Learning to balance one’s time perspective enables individuals to avoid the negative consequences of excessive reliance on particular time frames while optimizing their cognitive flexibility to shift temporal focus to satisfy situational demands. Achieving a balanced time perspective, or even simply minimizing existing excessive biases, is not easy. It requires an awareness of one’s current temporal orientation, overcoming cultural, social and situational pressures for sustaining a more limited orientation, and a will to live a healthy, socially connected, productive life. This chapter presents a variety of methods, including both evidence-based interventions and questions that can be employed in coaching sessions to address and develop different forms of imbalance in clients’ time perspective.

Preliminary evaluation of a school-based resilience-promoting intervention in a high-risk population: Application of an exploratory two-cohort treatment/control design.

Applying innovative methodology, we explored the efficacy of SPARK Resilience Programme––a new universal school-based resilience-promoting programme––regarding effects on depression symptoms and resilience in a high risk population in England. Quantitative and qualitative methods were combined in an exploratory two cohort treatment/control design with one cohort serving as the control group (single assessment) and a subsequent cohort as the treatment group (assessed before and immediately after treatment as well as 6 and 12 months after treatment ended), involving a total of 438 11–13 year old girls, According to analyses, depression symptoms were significantly lower directly after treatment and at 6 months but no longer at 12 months. Resilience scores, on the other hand, were significantly higher in the treatment cohort compared to the year-ahead control cohort at post-treatment and both follow-up assessments. Qualitative results demonstrated beneficial teacher experience overall. The current study provides first evidence for the efficacy of SPARK Resilience Programme. Furthermore, the applied two cohort treatment/control mixed methods design proved helpful for the preliminary testing of a school-based universal intervention programme efficacy in an authentic setting.

Internet Access at Home and its Relationship to Well-being in Deprived Areas of London

Purpose: The existing studies of the association between Internet usage and well-being have produced contra- dictory results. This study explores the associations between Internet access at home and well-being, as well as other life- style variables. Design/methodology/approach: The study was done in a probability sample of 800 community-dwelling adults aged 16 and over in six most deprived areas of the Redbridge borough of London. Using face-to-face interviews, information on the demographics, lifestyle, Internet access at home, happiness, trait hope, and subjective health was ob- tained. Path analysis and structural equation modelling were used to investigate the associations between Internet access and well-being, controlling for demographic variables. Findings: Respondents with home Internet access had stronger so- cial ties with friends and relatives, engaged in a wider repertoire of community creative activities and cultural events, and reported having higher social support. Controlling for demographic variables, Internet access at home was a weak but sta- tistically significant predictor of happiness, agency, and absence of mental health problems. The effect of home Internet access on happiness was partially mediated by social ties. Research limitations/implications: The correlational nature of the study forbids making causal inferences. The data suggest that people with low socioeconomic status may derive well- being benefits from having access to information technology which can serve as an instrument for social integration. Originality/value: The data provide a demographic snapshot of the digital divide in one of the most deprived areas of London.