Ine Wouters

Evaluation of the Fire Resistance of 19th Century Iron Framed Buildings

To assess the fire resistance of historical buildings, information is needed about the applied materials, the construction details, etc. Starting from this information calculation models can be set up to determine the fire resistance of the total structure and its components. Assessing cast iron framed buildings is difficult because cast iron as well as the former construction techniques are no longer used. Nevertheless the contemporary Eurocodes (EC) can be helpful when renovating such buildings. This article goes deeper into the structural characteristics of Brussels 19th century iron framed industrial buildings. Two calculations illustrate how the EC can be applied to evaluate the fire resistance of the structure.

Evolution of historical riveted connections: joining typologies, installation techniques and calculation methods

Riveting was one of the major joining techniques used for the assembly of iron and steel structures. Being widely used since 1860, today most of the existing riveted structures need maintenance and possibly strengthening. This research aims to improve the existing knowledge on this type of fasteners in order to stimulate less intrusive interventions during renovation, respecting the historical character of these structures. To reach this goal, a multidisciplinary literature study is carried out, dealing with three related topics: historical analysis (historical context, fields of use, types of riveted connections, comparison with other contemporary joining techniques), technical subjects (definition, material, joining typologies, forms of the rivet head, installation processes and techniques) and structural understanding (bearing principle, strength of riveted connections, calculation methods).

The Development of Fireproof Construction in Brussels Between 1840-1870

Abstract Fireproof mill construction had been developed in England at the end of the 18th century. In Brussels, the first large fireproof building was constructed in 1844–1847. All at once, the backlog of 50 years was eliminated. Moreover, for Brussels, the experimental period just started. Not bound by traditions, new techniques and materials were soon adopted. The evolution of the construction history of fireproof building in Brussels is discussed by going more deeply into the construction of six buildings, erected between 1844 and 1870.

Restoration of the 1824 Wissekerke Iron Suspension Footbridge: Construction Details Revealed

The wrought iron suspension footbridge, built in 1824 at the Wissekerke Castle in Kruibeke (Belgium) is the oldest surviving chain footbridge in continental Europe. As the footbridge shifted from private to public use, the condition of the footbridge was surveyed and assessed. During restoration works, which started in the winter of 2011, new construction details were revealed. The original foundation was excavated giving insight into the applied-anchorage system of the suspension cable. The iron bridge was blast-cleaned, revealing not only its connections, but uncovering assembly and production stamps. These new findings not only broaden the insight in the construction of the 1824 Wissekerke footbridge, they also contribute to the overall knowledge of early construction in wrought iron.

Technical improvements in 19th-century Belgian window glass production

Glass was used since the Roman age in the building envelope, but it became widely applied together with iron since the 19th century. Belgium was a major producer of window glass during the nineteenth century and the majority of the produced window glass was exported all over the world. Investigating the literature on the development of 19th century Belgian window glass production is therefore internationally relevant. In the 17th century, wood was replaced as a fuel by coal. In the 19th century, the regenerative tank furnace applied gas as a fuel in a continuous glass production process. The advantages were a clean production, a more constant and higher temperature in the furnace and a fuel saving. The French chemist Nicolas Leblanc (1787-1793) and later the Belgian chemist Ernest Solvay (1863) invented processes to produce alkali out of common salt. The artificial soda ash improved the quality and aesthetics of the glass plates. During the 19th century, the glass production was industrialized, influencing the operation of furnaces, the improvement of raw materials as well as the applied energy sources. Although the production process was industrialized, glassblowing was still the work of an individual. By improving his work tools, he was able to create larger glass plates. The developments in the annealing process followed this evolution. The industry had to wait until the invention of the drawn glass in the beginning of the 20th century to fully industrialise the window glass manufacture process.

Victor Horta’s Iron Architecture: A Structural Analysis

The internationally acknowledged Art Nouveau architect Victor Horta built remarkable artifacts of public iron architecture in Brussels. His projects display an innovative philosophy based on apparent iron frameworks used in a very efficient manner. As a supplement to the ample historical and architectural studies on Belgium’s most famous Art Nouveau architect, this paper puts Horta’s innovative structural practice of iron into the picture. To reach this goal, a structural analysis of four of Horta’s most interesting projects is carried out, going into the following topics: conceptual philosophy (structural typology), building techniques (shapes, connection details) and the coherence of the structural logic (structural usefulness).

Structural analysis of two metal de Dion roof trusses in Brussels model schools

From 1830 onwards state education was one of the priorities of the new Belgian monarchy. In 1875 the Ligue de l’Enseingement and architect E. Hendrickx put forward the Ecole Modele as a new school building typology where the preau – a spacious central covered courtyard – organized the entire school happening. This prototype served as a guideline for over 55 schools built by famous architects in every community of Brussels between 1875 and 1920. To span the preau, numerous metal roof trusses, varying from simple industrial Polonceau trusses to richly decorated de Dion trusses, span the 9 to 15 m wide central hall. Invented in 1837, the Polonceau truss had already established a solid reputation, and calculation methods were known and generally accepted at the time of the model schools. However, the structural functioning of the de Dion truss was completely new at that time. A study of the records and literature study did not reveal any kind of calculation notes for this truss typology. As a consequence, the extremely slender examples of this kind of truss raise questions on their real structural functioning, load-bearing capacities and capability to comply with modern standards without harming the subtle original structure. By means of historic documents, on-site surveys and finite elements calculations, this article goes deeper into the load-bearing capacity and stability of two de Dion roof trusses. Contemporary structural problems are stated, and the current conditions and safety level of these two trusses are discussed.

Structural assessment of the Winter Garden of the Royal Glasshouses of Laeken, Belgium

The Winter Garden, the largest of the Royal Glasshouses, is situated at the Royal Domain in Laeken in the northeast of Brussels, Belgium. This glasshouse was built between 1874 and 1876 in order of king Leopold II, according to the design of architect Alphonse Balat. A two-dimensional analysis demonstrated the basis structural behaviour under a series of symmetrical load combinations: the structure works as a cupola with a tension and a pressure ring. The stress levels and deflections in the structure have to be evaluated in a three-dimensional model which is still in progress. For the time, it seems that the norm values are not exceeded. The major threat for the metal structure is corrosion. Previous interventions and a very aggressive tropical indoor climate inflicted heavy corrosion damage. Nowadays, this elaborate plain tour de force must undergo a major restoration. 1 BUILDING THE WINTER GARDEN The typology of glasshouse buildings originates from the desire for a peaceful and green neighbourhood in the overpopulated cities during the Industrial Revolution. The first iron glasshouse is the iron hothouse in Hohenheim near Stuttgart (Germany) dating back to 1789 (Kohlmaier & Von Sartory 1991). The evolution of glass and iron production techniques in the nineteenth century was essential for the development and spread of the glasshouses. The Winter Garden of Laeken is part of a major complex of glasshouses in the Royal Domain in the northeast of Brussels, Belgium (Figure 1). The complete set of glasshouses takes up an area of 1.5 ha, covered with 2.5 ha of glass (Goedleven 1988). All entities are built between 1817 and 1905 in order of king Leopold II, who reigned the country from 1865 until his death in 1909. He is known as the king who fundamentally changed Belgium and Brussels in an architectural as well as in an urban development manner. Despite the fact that Belgium is a small country, he wanted it to radiate grand charisma. He used his personal influence, private funds and the profits from the Congo colony to realize many of his ideas. Alphonse Balat (1818–1895) was the royal architect from Leopold’s accession until his death. He was one of the architects who lead in the Belgian Art Nouveau movement. Besides the well-known Museum for Old Arts in Brussels and the Royal Palace in Laeken, he also designed most of the glasshouses of the Royal Domain, including theWinter Garden (Figure 1, no. 3). The Winter Garden (1874–1876) is a significant cultural legacy and an important artefact of the evolution of structural steelwork and Art Nouveau in Belgium. It is the first glasshouse on the Royal Domain with a complete iron and glass covering. The Winter Garden was meant to be a glasshouse for social events and to this very day, it still performs that task. For the design of theWinter Garden,Alphonse Balat referred to the Palm House (Kew Gardens, London, 1844–1848) designed by Decimus Burton and Richard Turner. Balat used the structural concept of the Palm House for his Winter Garden and applied this to a circular ground plan. The design of the Palm House in its turn was inspired by the Great Conservatory (1836–1840) of Joseph Paxton which was unfortunately demolished in 1920. This influence is clearly shown in Figure 2. The structure of the Winter Garden consists of 36 arch trusses which are rotated around a central point and form one large dome (Figure 3). The Winter Garden can be divided into two main parts (Figure 4). The first part consists of the dome in the middle of the glasshouse, which is topped off with a small cupola and a royal crown. The second part consists of a side aisle around the middle dome.These two parts are separated by a circular architrave on sandstone columns.

Iron And Steel Varieties Between 1860 And 1914:Survey Of The Belgian Nomenclature

Iron has been known for many centuries. In the course of the 19th century, the metal production methods evolved quickly, which resulted in many different varieties of iron and steel being in use during the same period. Unfortunately, when turning to historic literature, the nomenclature used to designate the type of iron or steel and the corresponding properties are far from uniform and clear. This paper discusses the development during the period 1860-1914, as during this time many different metals were used simultaneously. The research focuses especially on the situation in Belgium, as it is particularly interesting due to the Flemish-French linguistic problem and the clash of the English, French and German influences. The paper provides an overview of the original French and English nomenclature. By highlighting common misunderstandings, the relevance for today’s practice is illustrated.

Early Iron Roofs in Belgian Churches (1845–60)

This paper sets out to assess the early age of iron roof construction in Belgian churches and its evolution through an in-depth analysis of a selection of cases situated in Belgium, an early-industrialised country with a fast-developing iron industry. The study is based on fieldwork, archive and literature study of three early iron trusses in churches in Brussels, Antwerp and Ghent. By providing renewed insight into the early use of iron and the evolution of the construction principles in churches, this study intends to encourage researchers, architects or heritage assessors to consider the roof construction of churches with greater care.