Inge Houkes

Specific determinants of intrinsic work motivation, emotional exhaustion and turnover intention: A multisample longitudinal study

This longitudinal study tested a theoretically derived pattern of specific relationships between work characteristics and outcomes. The research model proposed four central domains of the work situation (i.e. task characteristics, workload, social support and unmet career expectations) and three important psychological outcomes (i.e. intrinsic work motivation, emotional exhaustion and turnover intention). More specifically, it was hypothesized that intrinsic work motivation is primarily predicted by challenging task characteristics; emotional exhaustion is primarily predicted by a high workload and lack of social support; and turnover intention is primarily predicted by unmet career expectations. Furthermore, we hypothesized that (i) the research model is generalizable over samples; (ii) work characteristics at Time 1 influence outcomes at Time 2; and (iii) the proposed causal pattern of relationships holds over different occupational groups. These hypotheses were tested by means of self-report questionnaires among two samples (bank employees and teachers) using a full-panel design with two waves (one-year interval). Results showed that Hypothesis 1 was confirmed in both samples. Hypothesis 2 was confirmed in sample 1, but not in sample 2. In the latter sample, we found evidence for reverse causation. Hence, Hypothesis 3 could not be confirmed.

Specific relationships between work characteristics and intrinsic work motivation, burnout and turnover intention: A multi-sample analysis

This study of two different samples (245 bank employees and 362 teachers) tested a theoretically derived pattern of specific relationships between work stressors and outcome variables. The research model proposes four central domains of the work situation: work content, working conditions, social and labour relations, and conditions of employment. In addition, the research model proposes three important outcome variables: intrinsic work motivation, emotional exhaustion, and turnover intention. More specifically, it was hypothesized that: (1) intrinsic work motivation is primarily predicted by task characteristics; (2) emotional exhaustion is primarily predicted by both workload and lack of social support; (3) turnover intention is primarily predicted by unmet career expectations; and (4) the proposed pattern of relationships holds over different groups. In order to test these hypotheses, a multi-sample analysis was performed using structural equation modelling. The results showed that the proposed pattern of relationships was largely supported by the data and that it was invariant across two samples. Furthermore, several additional relationships were found in each sample, one of which was common for both samples. Several explanations regarding these findings are discussed.

Development of burnout over time and the causal order of the three dimensions of burnout among male and female GPs. A three-wave panel study

BackgroundA good understanding of the aetiology and development of burnout facilitates its early recognition, prevention and treatment. Since the prevalence and onset of this health problem is thought to differ between men and women, sex must be taken into account. This study aims to assess the prevalence and development of burnout among General Practitioners (GPs). In this population the prevalence of burnout is high.MethodsWe performed a three-wave longitudinal study (2002, 2004, 2006) in a random sample of Dutch GPs. Data were collected by means of self-report questionnaires including the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Our final sample consisted of 212 GPs of which 128 were male. Data were analyzed by means of SPSS and LISREL.ResultsResults indicate that about 20% of the GPs is clinically burned out (but still working). For both sexes, burnout decreased after the first wave, but increased again after the second wave. The prevalence of depersonalization is higher among men. With regard to the process of burnout we found that for men burnout is triggered by depersonalization and by emotional exhaustion for women.ConclusionsAs regards the developmental process of burnout, we found evidence for the fact that the aetiological process of burnout, that is the causal order of the three burnout dimensions, differs between men and women. These sex differences should be taken into account in vocational training and policy development, especially since general practice is feminizing rapidly.

Personality, work characteristics, and employee well-being: a longitudinal analysis of additive and moderating effects.

This study tested the longitudinal influence of personality (measured by the characteristics growth need strength, negative affectivity [NA], and upward striving) on 3 psychological outcomes (intrinsic work motivation, emotional exhaustion, and turnover intention), using a pattern of specific relationships between work characteristics and these outcomes as a framework. The study hypotheses were tested in a multioccupational sample consisting of bank employees and teachers, using a 2-wave panel design with a 1-year time interval and structural equation modeling. NA had a cross-lagged direct and additive relationship with emotional exhaustion and also moderated the relationship between Time 1 workload and Time 2 emotional exhaustion. The authors concluded that NA may have multiple effects on emotional exhaustion that persist over time.

Specific determinants of burnout among male and female general practitioners: A cross‐lagged panel analysis

This study aimed to develop and test a specific pattern of relationships between job demands, job resources and person-related factors on the one hand, and the three burnout dimensions on the other, among Dutch General Practitioners. In addition, we aimed to test whether gender differences exist in this regard. Based on several theoretical models such as the Job Demand-Control model and the Job Demands-Resources model of burnout as well as a review of burnout studies among physicians, we formulated a research model of burnout. The research questions were answered by means of self-report questionnaires using a full panel design with two waves. Cross-lagged panel analyses indicated that the causal direction of the relationships between demands, resources and person-related factors on the one hand, and burnout on the other is reciprocal. In addition, multi-sample analyses revealed that the pattern of relationships between job demands, job resources, person-related factors and burnout is different for men and women, although results are less clear at the second measurement point. Among other things, we recommend anticipating in a gender sensitive way on risk factors for burnout and motivation loss for young professionals by coaching and empowerment in vocational training.

Work and Individual Determinants of Intrinsic Work Motivation, Emotional Exhaustion, and Turnover Intention: A Multi-Sample Analysis

This study tested the influence of personal characteristics on a pattern of specific relationships between work characteristics and psychological outcomes. The study hypotheses were: (1) Growth Need Strength has a direct effect on intrinsic work motivation and moderates the relationship between task characteristics and intrinsic work motivation; (2) Negative Affectivity has a direct effect on emotional exhaustion and moderates the relationships between workload and social support on the one hand and emotional exhaustion on the other; and (3) Upward Striving has a direct effect on turnover intention and moderates the relationship between unmet career expectations and turnover intention. These hypotheses were tested in two samples (bank employees and teachers) using Multi-Sample Analysis. The results showed that, generally, personal characteristics had a direct effect on the outcomes as hypothesized. We only found one moderating effect: Upward Striving moderated the relationship between unmet career expectations and turnover intention.

An insider's point of view: : how a system of flexible working hours helps employees to strike a proper balance between work and personal life

Increasing numbers of organisations offer flexible working hours to help employees balance work and personal life. However, studies about the effects of flexible working hours on work–life balance and organisational outcomes are ambiguous. The aim of this study is to gain greater insights into how employees experience the influence of flexible working hours on their work–life balance. A qualitative research was performed by in-depth interviews with a variant sample of 15 employees and thematic analysis of the data. The more family responsibilities the respondents have, the more they tend to perceive flexible working hours as a necessity rather than an extra benefit. According to the interviewees, the system creates a situation which is advantageous for both employer and employee. The extent to which this is achieved though depends on how organisations apply and implement it. It is concluded that when flexible working hours are supported by management and fit the work culture, they are highly appreciated both for private and work-related reasons. Moreover, its meaning for the private life varies according to life stage. Findings are important for policy makers and human resources managers alike in order to implement and deal with flexible working hours effectively. Consequently, this will help employees strike a proper balance between work and personal life generating beneficial organisational outcomes.

Work related characteristics, work-home and home-work interference and burnout among primary healthcare physicians: A gender perspective in a Serbian context

BackgroundLittle information exists on work and stress related health of medical doctors in non-EU countries. Filling this knowledge gap is needed to uncover the needs of this target population and to provide information on comparability of health related phenomena such as burnout across countries. This study examined work related characteristics, work-home and home-work interference and burnout among Serbian primary healthcare physicians (PHPs) and compared burnout levels with other medical doctors in EU countries.MethodsData were collected via surveys which contained Maslach Burnout Inventory and other validated instruments measuring work and home related characteristics. The sample consisted of 373 PHPs working in 12 primary healthcare centres. Data were analysed using t-tests and Chi square tests.ResultsNo gender differences were detected on mean scores of variables among Serbian physicians, who experience high levels of personal accomplishment, workload, job control and social support, medium to high levels of emotional exhaustion, medium levels of depersonalisation and work-home interference, and low levels of home-work interference. There were more women than men who experienced low job control and high depersonalisation. Serbian physicians experienced significantly higher emotional exhaustion and lower depersonalisation than physicians in some other European countries.ConclusionsTo diminish excessive workload, the number of physicians working in primary healthcare centres in Serbia should be increased. Considering that differences between countries were detected on all burnout subcomponents, work-related interventions for employees should be country specific. The role of gender needs to be closely examined in future studies as well.

How healthy are Dutch general practitioners? Self-reported (mental) health among Dutch general practitioners

Objective: To investigate the level of burnout and health status of male and female Dutch general practitioners (GPs), and to compare this with former samples of GPs and with the Dutch general population. Methods: A postal survey of 350 male and 350 female practising GPs in the Netherlands. Results: Although levels of emotional exhaustion of Dutch GPs were lower than those of national samples of GPs in the 1990s, the prevalence of burnout was still almost twice that of the general population. In contradiction with this, GPs reported better general health and fewer diseases than their fellow countrymen. Another remarkable finding was that female GPs were as healthy as their male colleagues, while in the general population, males report better health than females. Conclusion: The positive self-reported health status of general practitioners might reflect the high standards of the medical profession, which make physicians reluctant to show their own vulnerability. This might result in fewer, but more serious cases of (mental) illness among GPs as compared to the general population.

Show what you know and deal with stress yourself: a qualitative interview study of medical interns’ perceptions of stress and gender

BackgroundMedical students report high stress levels and in particular, the clinical phase is a demanding one. The field of medicine is still described as having a patriarchal culture which favors aspects like a physicians’ perceived certainty and rationalism. Also, the Effort-Recovery Model explains stress as coming from a discrepancy between job demands, job control, and perceived work potential. Gendered differences in stress are reported, but not much is known about medical interns’ perceptions of how gender plays in relation to stress. The aim of this study is to explore how medical interns experience and cope with stress, as well as how they reflect on the gendered aspects of stress.MethodsIn order to do this, we have performed a qualitative study. In 2010–2011, semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with seventeen medical interns across all three years of the Masters programme (6 male, 11 female) at a Dutch medical school. The interview guide is based on gender theory, the Effort-Recovery Model, and empirical literature. Transcribed interviews have been analyzed thematically.ResultsFirst, stress mainly evolves from having to prove one’s self and show off competencies and motivation (“Show What You Know…”). Second, interns seek own solutions for handling stress because it is not open for discussion (… “And Deal With Stress Yourself”). Patient encounters are a source of pride and satisfaction rather than a source of stress. But interns report having to present themselves as ‘professional and self-confident’, remaining silent about experiencing stress. Female students are perceived to have more stress and to study harder in order to live up to expectations.ConclusionsThe implicit message interns hear is to remain silent about insecurities and stress, and, in particular, female students might face disadvantages. Students who feel less able to manifest the ‘masculine protest’ may benefit from a culture that embraces more collaborative styles, such as having open conversation about stress.