Ingrid Schoon

The influence of context, timing, and duration of risk experiences for the passage from childhood to midadulthood

This study investigated the long-term effects of social disadvantage on academic achievement and on subsequent attainments in adulthood. The study drew on data collected for over 30,000 individuals born 12 years apart, following their development from birth to adulthood. The pathways that link social disadvantage to individual development across the life course were analyzed in a developmental-contextual systems model. The results showed that the influence of risk factors associated with socioeconomic disadvantage depended on the developmental stage of the individual, the experience of long-term or continuous disadvantage, and the overall sociohistorical context. Early risk had a moderate influence on the formation of individual competences. The greatest risk was associated with persisting and accumulating experiences of socioeconomic disadvantage throughout childhood and adolescence. Material conditions improved for the later-born cohort, yet pervasive social inequalities existed that affected outcomes during childhood and were consequently reflected in adult attainment.

Teenage job aspirations and career attainment in adulthood: A 17-year follow-up study of teenagers who aspired to become scientists, health professionals, or engineers

A longitudinal perspective was taken to investigate the predictive validity of teenage job aspirations, and the relative impact of individual and contextual factors on the formulation and realisation of career aspirations at age 16. The follow-up study of a nationally representative cohort of 7649 individuals born in the United Kingdom showed that teenage job aspirations predict specific occupational attainments in adulthood. Job aspirations expressed in adolescence differed between the sexes, and were related to parental education, teacher-ratings and self-ratings of ability, test scores in mathematics, and the school environment. Occupational attainment at age 33 was significantly related to the job aspirations expressed at age 16, but also to the belief in one’s own ability, mathematical test performance, specific personality characteristics, as well as social background and gender. It is concluded that for the understanding of occupational development across the lifespan both individual and contextual factors have to be considered.

Risk and Resilience in the Life Course: Implications for Interventions and Social Policies

It is now increasingly recognized that youth research needs to pay at least as much attention to the development of competences, resources, skills, and assets as to the emergence of disadvantage and risk. This paper summarizes recent developments in theory and research on resilience, a construct describing positive adaptation in the face of adversity, and explores possible applications of the theoretical advances and empirical findings to the development of interventions and social policies. A series of guiding principles are discussed along with examples of existing programmes aiming to promote the well being of disadvantaged, high-risk young people in our society.

Mental ability across childhood in relation to risk factors for premature mortality in adult life: the 1970 British Cohort Study

Objective: To examine the relation of scores on tests of mental ability across childhood with established risk factors for premature mortality at the age of 30 years. Methods: A prospective cohort study based on members of the British Cohort Study born in Great Britain in 1970 who had complete data on IQ scores at five (N  =  8203) or 10 (N  =  8171) years of age and risk factors at age 30 years. Results: In sex-adjusted analyses, higher IQ score at age 10 years was associated with a reduced prevalence of current smoking (ORper 1 SD advantage in IQ 0.84; 95% CI 0.80, 0.88), overweight (0.88; 0.84, 0.92), obesity (0.84; 0.79, 0.92), and hypertension (0.90; 0.83, 0.98), and an increased likelihood of having given up smoking by the age of 30 years (1.25; 1.18, 1.24). These gradients were attenuated after adjustment for markers of socioeconomic circumstances across the life course, particularly education. There was no apparent relationship between IQ and diabetes. Essentially the same pattern of association was evident when the predictive value of IQ scores at five years of age was examined. Conclusions: The mental ability–risk factor gradients reported in the present study may offer some insights into the apparent link between low pre-adult mental ability and premature mortality.

Socioeconomic adversity, educational resilience, and subsequent levels of adult adaptation

The aim of this article is to determine the extent to which individual, family, and contextual resources influence the school adjustment of 16-year-old teenagers and to investigate their consequent adult attainments at age 33. Adopting a longitudinal perspective, the experiences of more than 9,000 socially advantaged and disadvantaged young people are compared. The study shows that socioeconomic adversity is a significant risk factor for educational failure and that it influences consequent adjustment in work and healthrelated outcomes. Various social-psychological factors can counterbalance such adversity. In particular, parental educational aspirations for their child are significantly associated with educational resilience among less privileged individuals. The study confirms the long-term stability of secondary school adjustment. It is concluded that the factors and processes that modify the impact of adversity are context specific and that their influences have to be studied in the context in which they operate.

Childhood Mental Ability in Relation to Food Intake and Physical Activity in Adulthood: The 1970 British Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE. The purpose of this work was to examine the relation of scores on tests of mental ability in childhood with food consumption and physical activity in adulthood. METHODS. Based on a cohort of >17000 individuals born in Great Britain in 1970, 8282 had complete data for mental ability scores at 10 years of age and reported their food intake and physical activity patterns at 30 years of age. RESULTS. Children with higher mental ability scores reported significantly more frequent consumption of fruit, vegetables (cooked and raw), wholemeal bread, poultry, fish, and foods fried in vegetable oil in adulthood. They were also more likely to have a lower intake of chips (French fries), nonwholemeal bread, and cakes and biscuits. There was some attenuation in these associations after adjustment for markers of socioeconomic position across the life course, which included educational attainment, with statistical significance lost in some analyses. Higher mental ability was positively associated with exercise habit, in particular, intense activity (defined by being out of breath/sweaty). The associations between mental ability and these behaviors were similar in both men and women, and they were somewhat stronger for verbal than nonverbal ability. CONCLUSIONS. It is plausible that the skills captured by IQ tests, such as the ability to comprehend and reason, may be important in the successful management of a persons health behaviors.

Combining Work and Family Life

Abstract. The aim of this paper is to investigate whether the combination of paid employment and taking care of children promotes or challenges the life satisfaction of married and divorced men and women in the UK, Estonia, and Finland. The UK sample stems from the National Child Development Study, at age 42 (N = 10280; 48% of men, 52% of women). The Estonian data come from a representative sample of 1164 participants (507 men, 657 women; mean age 42). The Finnish data stems from an ongoing longitudinal study on 1390 participants (447 men and 943 women; mean age = 41). The results showed that in all three countries women report higher levels of life satisfaction than men, couples are generally more satisfied than divorcees, and those who are employed are generally more satisfied with their lives than those who are not. Second, for men in general as well as for divorced women higher levels of life satisfaction appear to be associated with full-time work. Third, men and women pursuing a professional career ...

Transitions from school to work : globalization, individualization, and patterns of diversity

Part I. Introduction: 1. Conceptualising school-to-work transitions in context Ingrid Schoon and Rainer K. Silbereisen 2. Thinking about the transition to adulthood: from grand narratives to useful theories Michael Shanahan and Kyle Longest Part II. Transitions and Global Change: 3. Is stable employment becoming more elusive for young men? Mary Corcoran and Jordan Matsudaira 4. Youth outcomes in the labour markets of advanced economies: decline, deterioration, and causes Rebekka Christopoulou and Paul Ryan 5. Uncertain and unable to commit: a 14-country comparison of the impact of globalization on the early life course Melinda Mills and Hans-Peter Blossfeld Part III. Individual Decision Making: 6. It was not my choice, you know? Young peoples subjective views and decision-making processes in biographical transitions Andreas Walther 7. From paradigm to paradox: parental support and transitions to independence Gill Jones 8. Job attitudes and job aspirations in a changing labour market: Germany, 1991-2006 Christian Ebner and Jutta Allmendinger 9. Escaping the gender trap: young womens transition into non-traditional occupations Marlis Buchmann and Irene Kriesi Part IV. Mapping Diversity and Change: 10. Polarization and diversity in the assumption of work and family related roles: evidence from two British birth cohorts Ingrid Schoon, Andy Ross, and Peter Martin 11. Transitions to adulthood: linking late adolescent life styles to family and work status in the mid-20s Jessica Garrett and Jacquelynne S. Eccles 12. Challenges of transitioning into adulthood Barbara Schneider Part V. Interventions and Policies: 13. School related burnout during educational tracks: antecedents and consequences Katariina Salmela-Aro 14. Building skills for positive developmental pathways and successful vocational careers in adulthood: intervention programs within the school context Karina Weichold 15. Integrated transition policies for European young adults: contradictions and solutions Manuela du Bois-Reymond 16. The future at work: labour market realities and the transition to adulthood Lynn Karoly.

Ethnic differences in achievement of developmental milestones by 9 months of age: the Millennium Cohort Study

This paper examines ethnic differences in the attainment of developmental milestones during infancy and possible explanations for observed differences are investigated. Data from the first survey of the Millennium Cohort Study (n = 15,994; 8212 males, 7782 females; mean age 9.2 mo [SD 0.5]) were examined. We found that Black Caribbean (odds ratio [OR] = 0.23, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.11-0.48), Black African (OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.18-0.55), and Indian (OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.33-0.93) infants were less likely to show delay in the attainment of gross motor milestones compared with White infants after adjustment for a range of explanatory variables. Pakistani and Bangladeshi infants were more likely to have delays in fine motor development (OR 1.69, 95% CI 1.21-2.35 and OR 2.17, 95% CI 1.17-4.02 respectively) and communicative gestures (OR 4.19, 95% CI 1.47-11.94 and OR 7.64, 95% CI 3.96-14.76 respectively), but these differences were explained by socioeconomic factors and markers of cultural tradition. In conclusion, unexplained ethnic differences were seen in the attainment of gross motor milestones, with Indian, Black Caribbean, and Black African children less likely to be delayed (in adjusted models). Increased likelihood of fine motor and communicative gesture delays among Pakistani and Bangladeshi infants, that disappear when socioeconomic factors are taken into account, point to the need to address deprivation among these groups to reduce the likelihood of developmental delay and possible longer term behavioural and cognitive problems and consequent opportunities throughout life.

IQ in childhood and vegetarianism in adulthood: 1970 British cohort study

Objective To examine the relation between IQ in childhood and vegetarianism in adulthood. Design Prospective cohort study in which IQ was assessed by tests of mental ability at age 10 years and vegetarianism by self-report at age 30 years. Setting Great Britain. Participants 8170 men and women aged 30 years participating in the 1970 British cohort study, a national birth cohort. Main outcome measures Self-reported vegetarianism and type of diet followed. Results 366 (4.5%) participants said they were vegetarian, although 123 (33.6%) admitted eating fish or chicken. Vegetarians were more likely to be female, to be of higher social class (both in childhood and currently), and to have attained higher academic or vocational qualifications, although these socioeconomic advantages were not reflected in their income. Higher IQ at age 10 years was associated with an increased likelihood of being vegetarian at age 30 (odds ratio for one standard deviation increase in childhood IQ score 1.38, 95% confidence interval 1.24 to 1.53). IQ remained a statistically significant predictor of being vegetarian as an adult after adjustment for social class (both in childhood and currently), academic or vocational qualifications, and sex (1.20, 1.06 to 1.36). Exclusion of those who said they were vegetarian but ate fish or chicken had little effect on the strength of this association. Conclusion Higher scores for IQ in childhood are associated with an increased likelihood of being a vegetarian as an adult.